^n.-'r::r^ 



iinfiP- 



BF 



The Sta 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap. Copyright l^o..... 

Shelf..:.M..4:/:>(D 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1ARS. 



Dt Use of the 



The School Series comprises 



BROWN'S LANGUAGE LESSONS, 

170 pages. 

THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

156 pages. 

THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

345 pages. 



A VALUABLE BOOK OF REFERENCE. 

THE GRAMMAR OF 

ENGLISH Grammars, 

With an Introdmtion, Historical and Critical, 

BY 

GOOLD BROWN. 

Tenth Edition— Revised and Improved. 

WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, Publishers, 
NEW YORK. 



tECON^ COPY. 




.t'*,f 



I V 



MAY'S 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY 



AND 



HYGIENE 



FOR USE IN PRIMAEY AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 



FOURTH EDITION 



•. 0. 



REVISED BY 
SMITH ELY JELLIEFE, M.D. 



WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY 
NEW YOKK 









\o 



34690 

ENDORSEMENT. 

We, the undersigned, have carefully examined the school text-book on 
physiology entitled May's Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, and, believ- 
ing it to accord with the ascertained truths of science relating to the nature 
and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, we cheerfully endorse 
it for the use of pupils of advanced grammar-school grade. 



Mary H. Hunt, 

National Superintendent, Depart- 
ment of Scientific Temperance 
Instruction of the Woman's 
Christian Temperance Union. 



Albert H. Plumb, D.D., 
William A. Mo wry, Ph.D., 
Daniel Dorchester, D.D., 
William E. Sheldon, A.M., 
Lewis D. Mason, M.D., 

Text-Book Committee of Advisory- 
Board, Department Scientific 
Temperance Instruction of the 
Woman's Chiistian Temperance 
Union. 






Or n-i t 



'CopybightX1889. 1893, 1896, and 1899, by 
COMPANY. 



38072 JON 9 lg^54woo.^B 






PREFACE. 



In the following pages the author has endeavored to pre- 
sent, in as simple and clear a manner as possible, the most im- 
portant facts relating to the anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 
of the human body. 

Of late years physicians have laid great stress upon the 
study of the prevention of disease ; and, keeping pace with 
this improvement, the laity have become better informed about 
matters pertaining to the care of the body than formerly. The 
great utility of such knowledge has led to the enactment of 
laws in New York and other States making provision for the 
study of physiology and hygiene in the public schools, with 
special reference to the effects of stimulants and narcotics upon 
the human system. Such legislative provisions are very grati- 
fying. Proper instruction to children on these subjects must 
do much to diminish the amount of sickness and raise the 
general standard of health. 

The author has endeavored to use the simplest terms com- 
patible with clearness. 

The lessons will be made more interesting and valuable if 
illustrated by the various tissues obtainable at the butchers' ; 
thus, the heart of a calf will serve nicely to show the general 
shape and arrangement of cavities and valves in the human 
heart. In the same way other organs and tissues should be 



IV PREFACE 

utilized by the teacher to elucidate the various parts of the 
body. The skeleton and its different parts should be before 
the class in reciting upon the bones. 

The synopsis given at the end of each chapter is intended to 
be of use in reviews and in guiding the teacher in a systematic 
presentation of the subject. 



FOURTH EDITION. 

In this edition the author has made a number of changes. 
The chapters on Alcoholic Drinks and Narcotics have been 
entirely rewritten, a new chapter on Physical Exercise intro- 
duced, and the whole work been remodelled. 

S. E. J. 
231 West Seventy-First Street, 
New York. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEE I. 

Introduction. 



The Vision of Mirzah and Its Allegorical Significance — The Bridge of 
Life— The Causes of Death — Anatomy and Physiology and Their 
Teachings— The Study of Hygiene— The Primary Constituents of our 
Bodies— Subdivisions of the Body— Its Different Parts — Their Gross 
Structure and Their Minute Structure — The Cells of the Body — The 
Anatomical Parts of the Body — The Head and Neck— The Trunk — 
The Upper Limbs— The Fingers — The Lower Limbs— Synopsis and 
Questions ... 13-22 



CHAPTER n. 

The Framework or Skeleton. 

Position in the Higher Animals— Uses of Bone : Support, Protection, 
Strength, Motion— Number of Bones — Forms of Bones : Long, Short, 
Flat, Irregular — Structure of Bone : Surface, Interior, Periosteum, 
Spaces, Color — Composition of Bone — Variations in Composition in 
Early and in Advanced Life — Care of the Skeleton : Effects of Faulty 
Position, Tight Clothing, Improperly-shaped Shoes, Stimulants and 
Narcotics, Poor Health — Fracture of a Bone — Parts of the Skeleton : 
Head, Trunk, Upper and Lower Limbs — Bones of the Head : Cranium 
and Face — The Cranium : Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal, etc. ; 
Ragged Edges — The Face ; Orbits ; Nose ; Nasal and Malar Bones ; 
Upper and Lower Jaws — Mobility of the Skull — Bones of the Trunk 
— The Spinal Column ; Sacrum and Coccyx ; Canal for Spinal Cord 
v-The Pelvi3 — The Hip-Bon^— The CoUar-Bone— The Shoulder* 

V 



VI CONTEJN^TS. 

Blade— The Breast^Bone— The Ribs: True, False, Floating— The 
Chest: Boundaries; the Diaphragm — The Bones of Upper Limb — 
The Humerus — The Bones of the Forearm; Radius, Ulna — The 
Bones of the Wrist and Hand : the Wrist, the Palm, the Fingers — 
The Bones of the Lower Limb— The Femur— The Patella — The 
Bones of the Leg : Tibia, Fibula — The Bones of the Foot : the Heel, 
Instep, Toes — Synopsis of Skeleton— Questions on the Skeleton 23 44 



CHAPTEE III. 

The Joints. 

Definition — Uses — Subdivision — Immovable Joints — Sutures — Slightly- 
movable Joints : General Arrangement, Ligaments, Varieties : Glid- 
ing, Hinge, Pivot, Ball-and-Socket — Accidents to Joints — Synopsis 
of Joints — Questions on the Joints 45-o0 



CHAPTER IV. 
The Muscles and Motion. 

Function of Muscles — Description of Muscle-tissue — Tendons — Fat — 
Uses of Fat : Warmth, Protection, Food, Appearance — Kinds of 
Muscle-tissue — Voluntary Muscles — Involuntary Muscles — Mixed 
Muscles — How Muscles Act — Influence of the Brain and Nerves — 
Ordinary Muscular Movements very Complex — Groups of Muscles — 
Facial Expressions — Number of Muscles — Shape of Muscles — Size of 
Muscles — A Few Important Muscles : Biceps, Triceps, Pectoralis, 
Diaphragm — Tendon of Achilles — The Care of Muscles — Exercise : 
Necessity, Amount, Kind, Proper and Improper— Effects of Alcohol 
and Tobacco on Muscles — Changes in Muscle by Use of Alcohol — 
Synopsis of Muscles and Motion— Questions on Muscles and Mo- 
tion 51-65 



CHAPTEK V. 
Physical Exercise. 

Value of Physical Exercise— Effect of Exercise on the Muscles— Effects 
of Muscular Over-exercise— Effect of Exercise on the Skin— Effect of 



COJ^TENTS. Vll 

Exercise on the Lungs — Effect of Exercise on the Heart — Effect of 
Exercise on the Appetite — When to Exercise and When Not to Exer- 
cise — Different Kinds of Exercise — Gymnasium — Home — Different 
Kinds of Apparatus — Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on Athletes — 
Synopsis and Questions 66-77 



OHAPTEK VI. 

Food and Drink. 

Necessity for Eood and Drink — Essential to Life — Difference in Food of 
Plants and of Animals— Difference in the Food of Different Animals 
— Carnivorous Animals — Herbivorous Animals — Different Kinds of 
Food Required by Man— Fleshy Food — Vegetable Food — Starch — 
Green Vegetables— Fat and Fatty Food — Water — Tea and Coffee — 
Necessity for Combination of all Forms of Food and Water — Some 
of the Simplest Forms of Food — Meat and Fish— Bread — Milk: 
Cream, Butter, Cheese — Eggs — Variety in Food — Proper Food — Meth- 
ods of Cooking : Boiling, Stewing, Frying, Broiling, Roasting, Baking 
— Cautions Regarding Eating — Drinking- Water — Dangers of Well- 
water — How Poisoning Occurs — How Avoided — Advantages of Mixed 
Diet — Beverages : Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Kola, Coca — Their Useful and 
their Harmful Properties — Synopsis of Food and Drink — Questions on 
Food and Drink 78-94 



CHAPTER VII. 

Alcoholic Drinks. 

Definition— How Made— Fermentation— Alcohol— Alcoholic Appetite- 
Prevention of Fermentation— Fermentation in Bread-making— Cider 
—Wine— Champagne— Malt Liquors— Root Beer—Distilled Spirits— 
Cordials— General Effects of Alcoholic Drinks -Effect of Alcohol on 
Food— Summary of Diseases Caused by Alcohol— Alcoholic Drinks 
and Expectancy of Life — Moral Effects of Alcoholic Drinks — Money 
Spent in Alcoholic Drinks — Alcoholic Drinks and Crime — Synopsis 
and (Questions , , , , 95-109 



VUl CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Blood and the Circulation — The Heart and the Blood- 
vessels. 

Importance of the Blood — Appearance of the Blood, Color — Composition 
of the Blood : Eluid, Globules — Blood-globules ; Number — Micro- 
scope — Red Blood-globules — White Blood-globules — The Plasma — 
The Blood of Other Animals — Use of the Red Blood-globules— Use 
of the Plasma — Difference between the Blood in Arteries and the 
Blood in Veins — Clotting of the Blood — Value of the Clotting of 
Blood — The Circulation : How Seen in the Frog — The Heart — Situ- 
ation of the Heart— Form of the Heart — The Pericardium — Cavities 
of the Heart, Grooves, Auricles, Ventricles — Function of the Heart — 
Frequency of the Heart-beats — Course of the Blood — Circulation 
through the Lungs — Changes in the Blood while Passing through the 
Lungs and through the System : The Aorta — Valves of the Heart — 
The Blood-vessels : Arteries, Veins, Capillaries — The Arteries — The 
Pulse — The Capillaries — The Veins : Differences between Veins and 
Arteries — Valves of the Veins — Rapidity of the Circulation of the 
Blood — Fainting : Its Treatment — Bleeding : Its Treatment, Hemor- 
rhage — How to Have a Good Circulation — Exercise — Effects of 
Alcohol upon the Heart and the Circulation— Effect of Alcohol upon 
the Arteries ; Apoplexy— Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart and Cir- 
culation, "Tobacco Heart"— The Lymphatics, Difference between 
them and Arteries, Use, Course; Lacteals— Synopsis of the Blood 
and the Circulation, the Heart and the Blood-vessels— Questions on 
Chapter 110-137 



CHAPTER IX. 

Digestion. 

Definition— The Various Organs of Digestion— Alimentary Canal— The 
Mouth— Teeth : Temporary, Permanent— Parts of Teeth— Structure 
of Teeth— Names of Teeth— Care of the Teeth— The Salivary Glands : 
Parotid, Sublingual, Submaxillary— Saliva— Effects of Chewing Gum 
—The Throat— The Tongue— The Gullet— The Stomach : Descrip- 
tion, Pylorus, Coats — Gastric Juice — Gastric Tubules — Pepsin- 
Function of Gastric Juice— Uses of Stomach : Digestion, Storehouse, 
f'ulverizer— Stomachs in Certain J^ower Auim^ls— Igffect of Tobacco 



CONTENTS. IX 

on Stomach — Effect of Alcohol on Stomach — Discovery of How the 
Stomach Acts— '^ Heavy " and '^ Light" Food— The Bowels: Sub- 
divisions, Pylorus, Duodenum, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, At- 
tachment to Backbone, Coats — The Peritoneum— Motion of Intes- 
tines — Projections on Inner Surface of Intestines — The Work of the 
Intestines : Digestion — Starchy, Fatty, Fleshy Food — Openings into 
Small Intestines: From Pancreas, From Liver — The Liver and 
' Gall bladder : Position, Description — Uses of the Liver : Bile, Puri- 
fy Blood, Remove Impurities — Liver Cells — Bile — Action of Bile — 
Purification of Blood by Liver — The Liver as a Storehouse for 
Nourishment — The Unhealthy Liver : Gout — The Drunkard's Liver 
— The Pancreas : Pancreatic Juice — Uses of Pancreatic Juice — 
Absorption— Method of Absorption by Blood-vessels — Lacteals — 
Habits which are Injurious to " Proper Digestion : Eating too 
Quickly, Eating too Much, Eating too Many Sweets and Sours, 
Chewing Gum, Ice-water in Large Quantity, Violent Exercise after 
Meals, Severe Brain-work after Meals, Bathing after Meals, Excite- 
ment, Alcoholic Drink, Smoking — The Spleen : Description, Posi- 
tion, Use, Enlargement — Synopsis of Digestion — Questions on Diges- 
tion 138-164 



CHAPTEK X. 

The Organs of Voice and Breathing. 

Definitions — Course of the Inspired Air — The Organ of Voice — The Lar- 
ynx — Form and Situation — Parts of Larynx — Triangular and Circular 
Pieces — The Epiglottis — The Vocal Cords— Their Protection of the 
Windpipe — The Vocal Cords in Breathing — How Sounds are Pro- 
duced — The Varieties of Vocal Sounds — Speaking — The Trachea or 
Windpipe — Situation and Form— The Air - passage and the Food- 
passage — Rings of the Windpipe — Branching of the Wind-pipe — The 
Bronchi — The Lungs — Division and Situation— Shape of the Lungs 
— Structure of the Lungs — Subdivision of the Bronchi — The Air- 
vesicles — The Pleura — Breathing is Involuntary — Movements of the 
Chest in Breathing — Mouth-breathing — Frequency of Breathing — 
Changes which Breathing Produces in the Blood and Tissues — 
Changes Produced in the Air by Breathing — The Poisonous Gases — 
Effects of Impure Air — Purification of the Air — How Plants Live and 
Grow — Ventilation — Simple Means of Ventilating — Absence of 
praughts — Necessity for Sunlight— Effect of Tight Clothing upou 



CONTENTS. 

Breathing — The Deformed Chest — Effects of Tobacco Smoke upon 
the Lungs and Throat— Synopsis of Organs of Voice and Respiration 
— Questions on Organs of Voice and Respiration 165-183 



CHAPTER XI. 

The Heat or the Body. 

Our Body may be Compared to a Stove — Fuel — Combustion — Work, the 
Result of the Combustion of Fuel — Refuse, another Result of the 
Burning of Fuel — The Results of the Combustion of Food — Casting 
off the Refuse Materials from the Body — Food and Oxygen Produce 
Heat and Work — Warm-blooded and Cold-blooded Animals — Heat of 
the Human Body in Health — Heat of the Human Body at the Sur- 
face — Heat of the Body in Sickness — Regulation of the Bodily Heat 
— Warm Clothing -How to Keep Warm in Winter — How to Keep 
Cool in Summer — How the Body is Kept Cool in Summer — Effects of 
the Passage of Moisture into the Air — Perspiration — Ice-water in 
Summer — Sunstroke — Effects of Cold — Synopsis of the Heat of the 
Body — Questions on the Heat of the Body 184-194 

CHAPTER XII. 

Narcotics. 

Narcotics — Effects of — Examples — Tobacco— Origin of Name — History of 
Tobacco — Cultivation of Tobacco — Preparation of Tobacco — Compo- 
sition of Tobacco — Nicotine— Effects of Tobacco upon the System — 
The Tobacco Habit — Tobacco as a Medicine— Injurious Effects of To- 
bacco upon the Adult — Smokers' Sore Throat— Tobacco Heart — To- 
bacco Blindness — Tobacco Nervousness — Inj urious Effects of Tobacco 
on the Young — Influence of Tobacco upon Muscular Strength and the 
Power of Endurance — Cigarette Smoking— Other Objections to the 
Tobacco Habit — Smoking is an Expensive Habit — Opium and Mor- 
phine — Preparation of Opium — Physical Properties of Opium and 
Morphine — Opiates - Laudanum — Dover's Powder — Paregoric — Ef- 
fects of Opium and Morphine — Opium and Morphine Poisoning — 
The Opium and Morphine Habit — Pangs of — Results of— Chloral 
or Chloral Hydrate — Appearance of — Uses of — The Chloral Habit 
—Effects of— Absinthe— Effects of— The Absinthe Habit— Hashish 
— Chlorofprm— Uses of— The Chloroform Habit 195-210 



CONTENTS. 2a 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Nervous System. 

Parts of the System Already Described — Functions Existing in both Ani- 
mals and Plants — Similarity in the Structure of Plants and Animals — 
— Absence of Nervous System in Plants — Most Perfect Nervous Sys- 
tem in Man — Function of the Nervous System — Subdivisions of the 
Nervous System— Brain — Spinal Cord — Nerves — Examples of the 
Action of the Nervous System— Rapidity of Action of the Nervous 
System — Coverings of the Brain — Size and Weight of the Brain — 
Divisions of the Brain: Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla — The 
Cerebrum — Gray and White Parts of the Cerebrum — The Cere- 
bellum—The Medulla — The Cranial Nerves : Twelve Sets — Functions 
of the Brain — Mind, Will, Thought, Memory, Intelligence — The 
Work of the Brain — Reason and Judgment — Intelligence — Training 
the Brain — The Spinal Cord — Interior of the Spinal Cord — The 
Spinal Nerves — Kinds of Nerves : Sensation and Motion — Functions 
of the Spinal Cord — Reflex Action — Examples of Reflex Action — 
Sleep — Amount of Sleep — Sleep of Children—Uses of Sleep — Time 
for Sleep — Nervousness — Wakefulness — Effects of Alcohol upon the 
Nervous System — Delirium Tremens — Effects of Tobacco upon the 
Nervous System — Effects of Coffee and Tea upon the Nervous Sys- 
tem — The Sympathetic System of Nerves — Synopsis of the Nervous 
System — Questions on the Neivous System 211-237 



CHAPTER XIV. 

The Senses. 

Definition — Enumeration — Special Senses. 

The Sense of Touch and the Skin — Thickness— Uses of the Skin — Protec- 
tion — The Skin as the Organ of Sensation — Throwing Off Water, 
Salts, and Poisonous Matters — Regulating the Bodily Warmth — Struct- 
ure of the Skin — Scarf-Skin — True Skin— Color of the Skin— Mark- 
ings of Skin — Attachments of Skin — The Perspiration-tubes — The 
Pores — Perspiration — Sensible and Insensible Perspiration— Uses of 
the Perspiration — The Oil-tubes — The Hair — The Nails — Care of the 
Skin— The Results of Uncle anliness and Filth — Bathing — Warm 



XU CONTENTS. 

Baths — Cold Baths — Turkish and Russian Baths — Clothing — Exercise 
— Cosmetics — Care of the Hair— Care of the Nails— Synopsis of Sense 
of Touch aijd the Skin— Questions on the Sense of Touch and the 
Skin 238-250 

The Nose and the Sense of Smell — Functions of Nose — Breathing Channel 
and Smelling Channel — Parts of the Nose — Nerves of Smell— Sense 
of Smell in Lower Animals — Cold in the Head — Use of Smell— Sweet 
Scents— Synopsis of Nose and Sense of Smell— Questions on Nose 
and Sense of Smell 250-254 

The Tongue and the Sense of jTas^e— Structure of Tongue— Uses of Tongue 
—Uses of Sense of Taste— Abuse of Sense of Taste— Synopsis of 
Tongue and Sense of Taste— Questions on Tongues and Sense of 
Taste 254-257 

The Eye and the Sense of Sight — Protections to the Eye— The Eyelids — 
The Eyebrows and Eyelashes— Parts of the Eye— Interior of the Eye 
— the Iris— The Muscles of the Eye— How we See— Resemblance of 
the Eye to the Photographer's- Camera— The Nerves of the Eye — 
Blindness— Images — The Tears — Care of the Eyes : Rest for the Eyes, 
Fine Print, Direction of the Light, Reading while Lying Down, 
Reading in the Cars, Contagious Eye Disease, Stooping in Reading — 
Weak Sight — Old Sight — Synopsis of Eye and Sense of Sight — 
Questions on the Eye and Sense of Sight 257-268 

The Ear and the Sense of Hearing — Parts of the Ear — The Outer Ear — 
The Middle Ear— The Bones of the Ear— The Eustachian Tube— The 
Internal Ear — The Nerve of Hearing — Sound — How we Hear^Deaf 
Mutes— Cr.re of the Ear— Synopsis of the Ear and the Sense of Hear- 
ing — Questions on the Ear and the Sense of Hearing 268-274 



Index 275 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

Theee is a beautiful allegory upon human life, by Addi- 
son, called " The Vision of Mirzah." Mirzah, who had ascended 
the hills of Bagdad to spend a day in quiet meditation, says, 
" And behold as I sat there, I heard a sound as of sweet mu- 
sic, and looking up I saw a genius clad in shepherd's gar- 
ments, who beckoned me and said, ' I have heard thy musings 
on the life of man,' and he commanded me to look eastward. 
I did so and beheld a great valley with a foaming tide rushing 
through it. Spanning it was a bridge, composed of three- 
score-and-ten arches, which, added to some broken ones near 
one end, made up the number to nearly one hundred. At 
either end was a thick mist. I turned to the genius in sur- 
prise. * "What does this mean ? ' I asked. 

" Then he told me that the mist was the mist of eternity, 
and the bridge, the bridge of life. And as I looked I noticed 
many people passing over it, and also that there were numer- 
ous trap-doors in the bridge, more numerous at the ends than 
in the middle, which opened as they were stepped upon, and 
let the people fall through into the rushing tide beneath, 
which bore them quickly away into the mist. I noticed some 
of the people pushing others on trap-doors that they other- 
wise would not have trodden on, and also that many others 
were busy in the pursuit of bubbles which broke almost as 
soon as they grasped them. I noticed that very few got past 
the middle part of the bridge, though some did keep up a 
kind of hobbling march through the broken arches, though 
they looked tired and weary from the long walk." 



14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

This allegory is unfortunately true, and few people who 
are born into the world live past middle life, and such are 
apt to be less strong and well than in youth. Very many die 
when they are little children of diseases or accidents which 
are the trap-doors of the vision. Others are ''pushed through/* 
which means that they are killed in battle or starved by the 
greediness of others, or that they are led by their companions 
on the dangerous trap-door of drink, which every year opens 
for more people to drop through than are killed in all the bat- 
tles all over the world. 

The bubbles which many chase are riches and pleasure. 
But if one has not health to enjoy them they are of no value. 
In olden times people were always seeking for the Elixir of 
Life, which would make them live forever. They never found 
it. But to-day wise men realize that the nearest thing to the 
Elixir is knowledge — knowledge of how to make our bodies 
large and strong, how to prevent sickness, and how to live as 
long as possible. 

We look with wonder upon some of the machines made 
by men, the steam-engine, the printing-press, or the telephone ; 
but the human body, with its power to move, to talk, to see, 
to hear, and to think, is far more complicated and wonderful 
than any machine ; and it requires something more than or- 
dinary intelligence to keep it in perfect running order. 

Pain is the signal to us that we must stop for repairs, but 
it is a poor engineer who waits until his engine breaks down 
before he puts it in order ; so it is an unwise man who over- 
works or over-indulges himself until sickness tells him he 
must stop. There is always some one part of the body that 
will give out first. One may have inherited some w^eakness 
of heart or lungs ; another may have from childhood over- 
taxed his stomach by rapid eating, while a third may have 
injured his eyes by late reading, and so toward middle life 
something begins to wear out, and coughs, indigestion, or 
headache give warning of danger. It is therefore well worth 



INTRODUCTIOIT. 15 

our while to learn how each of us can develop our bodies to 
their fullest possibility of physical and mental culture. 

There can be no study more fascinating than the study 
of our bodies. We listen to the music of an organ that is 
made by blowing wdnd through long pipes, but we have in 
our own throats the '* organ" of speech which can make far 
more beautiful music, and a pair of lungs which act as bel- 
Iqws and which work of themselves day and night. What do 
they look like ? 

We marvel that the fine hair- spring of a watch can keep 
it ticking for twenty-four hours, and yet we have a heart that 
will keep on beating for seventy years without winding up. 
How does it do it ? 

But the most wonderful thing about man is his mind, 
which in some mysterious w^ay is connected with the soft gray 
brain inside his skull. With his mind he studies, he calcu- 
lates, he loves, he does business, he plans for the future ; and 
yet if he treats his brain badly, as by exciting it with strong 
drink, the clear mind is lost and the man becomes like a beast 
of the field. What can one do to prevent this? 

The three combined studies of Anatomy, Physiology, 
Hygiene, will teach us everything we want to know about 
our bodies. 

Anatomy is the study of the form and structure of the 
different parts of the body. It teaches us the size and shape 
of the bones, the kinds of muscles that move them, as well as 
the shape and position of the various Organs of the body. 
An Organ is some part, like the heart or stomach, which has 
some special work to do. This work is called its Function. 

Physiology is the study of how we live. It explains 
how the lungs breathe, how the blood circulates, and how the 
stomach digests its food ; in short, what is the special function 
of each organ. 

Hygiene, so-called after Hygeia, the goddess of health, 
is the science that teaches us how to keep all the organs of the 



16 AINTATOMY, THYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIENE. 

body performing ttieir functions; in other words, how to| 
keep well. 

Before we begin to study our bodies let us see where we | 
stand in the universe. Man is called the lord of creation, be- 
cause he is the noblest work of the Creator ; he is the highest I 
of all animals, and yet he is very closely related to some of 
the lowest forms of life, and is wholly dependent on all the | 
animal and vegetable life around him. 

For instance, there is a little animal, so small that it can- 
not be seen without a microscope. It is called Amoeba. It 
lives in stagnant water, and sometimes strays into our drink- 
ing-water, without doing it any harm. This amoeba is a soft, 
shapeless mass of pulp, called protoplasm, without any skin 
to hold it in shape. It is the lowest kind of animal that lives ; 
it has no mouth, no stomach ; it simply absorbs water, and 
rolls itself around little particles of food. It can divide in 
half and become two amoebae. The amoeba and man stand at 
the opposite extremes of the animal kingdom, and yet man 
has in his body countless cells that look and act almost ex- 
actly like the amoeba. In fact, man is largely made of differ- 
ent kinds of minute cells. 

A cell is a bit of protoplasm surrounded by a covering or 
wall, and containing a body in the middle which is called the 
nucleus. Every living cell has, or has had the power to di- 
vide and make two new cells. This is the secret of life. It is 
the cause of all growth in animals and plants, and the thing 
that makes them different from the stones and water of the 
mineral kingdom. 

To get the idea of a cell, think of a grape, with its soft 
pulp, like protoplasm ; its thin skin, like the wall, and its clus- 
ter of stones in the centre, like the nucleus. There are many 
kinds of cells in the body, some are long fibres, like threads, 
such as the nerves ; others are flat, like scales, as in the skin. 
The cells in the bones have hard walls, and those of the blood, 
which are called corpuscles, are like the amoeba, without any 



mTEODtJCTION. 17 

walls at all. Each cell has its own term of life, and its own 
duties ; those in the liver secrete bile, those in the muscles 
produce motion. As soon as they have lived their day, they 
are seized upon as waste matter, and hurried away and cast 
out of the body, while new ones are formed to take their 
places. 

Thus we see that the health of our bodies depends on the 
nourishment and health of each separate cell. If we burn 
our hands some of the cells are destroyed, and those lying 
near go to work to form new cellular tissue to take their 
place. If we eat too much candy the liver becomes over- 
loaded with sweet and does not properly purify the blood, and 
the impurities work through the skin in the form of blotches 
and pimples. 

The cells of the body are constantly demanding food, but 
all they want is a few mineral substances such as salt and lime 
to make the bones hard, iron to give vigor to the blood, and 
four elements. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. 
Carbon is like the soot that a flame gives off. Oxygen is 
that part of the air that gives us life. Hydrogen and Oxy- 
gen together make water, and Nitrogen is the gas that di- 
lutes the Oxygen in the air. If we were the only living things 
in the universe we could not get at these foods, for our bodies 
are not made to take them in their pure form. 

Plants, however, can absorb them from the water and air 
and soil ; they turn them into starch and sugar and other 
foods and store them up in their cells. Animals eat the plants, 
and make these four elements over into fat and muscle. 
When we eat vegetables and meat we are giving our cells the 
same Carbon, Ox^^gen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen that has been 
worked over into food for the plants and animals. 

But not all plants or animals are helpful to man. The 
savages fear wild animals and certain plants, with which their 
enemies poison their arrow-tips, so that a dart causes death ; 
but civilized man has discovered in the last fifty years a class 



18 ANATOMY, PHrSIOLOay, AND HYGIENE. 

of very minute plants and animals, which are the cause of a 
great many diseases, as well as of much benefit to man. 

These are generally called germs, though the term bac- 
teria may be applied to most of them. The bacteria are in- 
finitesimal one-celled plants that divide to form new ones, and 
that increase by the thousands and millions. There are as 
many kinds as there is variety in the results they produce. 
One kind, growing in cheese, gives it its flavor ; another kind 
growing in milk makes it sour. Some grow on meat and 
cause it to decay. Some grow in our bodies, when they can 
find a lodgement, and make us ill. Diphtheria, consump- 
tion, cholera, and many other diseases are caused by bacteria 
which attack the cells and infuse poisons into the blood. 

The life of man is thus an endless struggle of cells 
against cells. If the cells that make up his body get sufficient 
food so that they can grow and form new ones, then his body 
grows and thrives ; but if they do not get enough food, many 
of them perish, and his body becomes pale and thin and 
sick. 

In the study of Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, there 
will be many technical names to remember, and many scien- 
tific facts to learn ; but the successful students will not be 
those who merely get high per cents in their recitations, but 
those who by learning to take care of their bodies are able to 
walk with firm steps over many arches of the bridge of life. 

SUBDIVISION OF THE BODY. 

We may divide the body in many different ways : 

(1.) Into different parts of the body ; such as the head, 
the trunk, the limbs. These again may be subdivided. 

(2.) "We may further divide these into the different tis- 
sues. A tissue is one of the simple forms of material of 
which the different parts of the body are composed ; thus, 
the finger consists of bone, fat, muscle, arteries, veins, nerves, 
skin — all these are tissues. 

(3.) If we subdivide still further, and again and again, 



IKTRODUCTIOlSr. 



19 



until we come to the very smallest part, we have the cell^ 
the fibre, and a substance between these, which may be jelly- 
like or may be hard. The entire body is formed of mil- 
lions of these cells and fibres and this substance between 
them. They are all very small and we must use a strong 
microscope to see them. It is only when millions of them 
are gathered together that they form a mass large enough 
to be seen with the unaided eye. The cells are of dif- 
ferent shapes, but usually they are more or less rounded. 
Thefiby^es are thread-like. 



/;&\ n tu "" J/ 




Fig, 1. — Some Different Forms of Cells. Fig. 2.— A Collection of Fibres, Separated. 



PARTS OF THE BODY. 

The human body can be divided into : 

(1.) The head and neck. 

(2.) The trunk. 

(3.) The limbs. 

The Head and Neck. — The head has a large camty 
for the brain, and smaller ones to receive the eyes, ears, nose, 
and tongue. It is divided into the crown (the top part), and 
the face. 



20 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIENE. 



Cheek . . 
Chin 



Scalp. 

Forehead. 

Bridge of Nose, 




Thigh. 



Ankle. 

. . Arch or Instep of Foot. 



Fig. 3.— The Names of the Different Parts of the Body. 



INTRODUCTIOIS-. 21 

The Trunk is the part of the body between the neck 
and upper limbs above, and the lower limbs below. It has 
two large cavities : an upper one, called the chest or thorax, for 
the heart and lungs ; and a lower one, called the abdomen, for 
the organs of digestion. 

The Limbs are attached to the trunk. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The vision of Mirzah and its meaning. 
Wonderful mechanism of the body and its care. 
Eolation of man to the lower animals and to plants. 
Definition and description of cells. 

Food for the cells of our bodies contain same elements as food of 
plants and animals. 

Struggle of the cells of our bodies against the germs of disease. 
Organ — A part which performs some special work. 
Function — The special work which an organ does. 
Subdivisions of the body : 

a. Structure — Tissues, simple forms of material : 

1. Cell. 2. Fibre cells. 3. Substance between. 

h. Parts : 

1. Head and neck. 3. Upper limb. 

a. Crown, h. Face. a. Arm. h. Forearm, c. Hand. 

2. Trunk. 4. Lower limb. 

a. Thorax, b. Abdomen, a. Thigh, b. Leg. c. Foot. 

QUESTIONS. 
1. What was the Vision which Mirzah saw? and explain its 
meaning. 2. Why do few people live past middle life ? 3. What 
does pain do for us ? 4. What are Anatomy, Physiology, and Hy- 
giene ? 5. Where does man stand in the Universe ? 6. Describe 
the lowest animal, the Amoeba. 7. What is a cell, and what do 
some cells look like ? 8. What relation do cells bear to our bodies? 
9. What are the four elements that cells need for food? 10. What 
are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen? 11. How do 
plants get their food ? 12. How do animals get their food ? 13. 
How does man get his ? 14. How do some bacteria hurt the cells 
of our bodies? 15. Name the three main parts of the body. 16. 
Into what parts can the head be divided ? 17. What is the trunk 
and what large cavities does it contain ? 



22 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




.Back of Skull -(Occiput) 



I Bones of Spinal Column 
( forming the Neck. 



Collar-bone (Clavicle). 

j Upper End of Bone of Arm form- 
J ing the Shoulder-joint. 



.Bone of Arm (Humerus). 



Hip-bone. 

. Inner Bone of Forearm (Ulna). 
Outer Bone of Forearm (Radius). 
Upper end of Thigh-bone 
forming the Hip-joint. 



. . . .Bones of the Wrist (Carpus). 
Bones of the Hand (Metacarpus). 

j Bones of the Fingers (Pha- 
j langes of the Fingers). 



.Thigh-bone (Femur). 



.Knee-pan (Patella). 



Inner Bone of Leg (Tibia). 
Outer Bone of Leg (Fibula). 



. . .Bones of Ankle (Tarsus). 
Bones of Foot (Metatersus). 

j Bones of Toes (Pha- 

1 langes of the Toes), 



Fig. 4.— The Skeleton, Viewed in Front. 



CHAPTEE II. 
THE FEAMEWOKK OE SKELETON. 

The Skeleton. — This is the name given to the bony 
framework inside our bodies. Most animals have some kind 
of support for the soft flesh and internal organs which other- 
wise would be crushed. If you boil a fish until the meat can 
easily be picked off, you will find its skeleton inside. It con- 
sists chiefly of a long backbone with spines, and a very small 
skull. If you boil all the bones of a chicken until they are 
quite clean you can reconstruct its skeleton by fastening the 
bones with fine wires at the joints where in life they were 
bound together by cartilage. 

Animals that cannot move at all, like clams and oysters, 
or those that move very slowly, as snails and lobsters and 
crabs, have their skeletons on the outside. They are then 
called shells. The turtle has a skeleton of little bones inside 
its body, and a strong horny shell outside to protect it from 
accident, for it cannot move out of harm's way as quickly as 
a frog or mouse or bird. 

The skeleton of a man is very much like the skeleton of 
the higher apes, except that the back bone, or spinal column, 
is erect, the forearms are shorter and not so thick, and the 
.skull is larger. 

The word '* skeleton" means "a dried-up body." We 
generally apply the word to all the dead bones of the body, 
after they have been cleaned and fastened into their places 
with wire. 

The power of bone to resist decay is remarkable. Fos- 
sil bones deposited in the ground long before the appearance 
of man upon the earth have been found to 'exhibit a consider- 
able portion of cartilage. The jaw of the Cambridge Masto- 



24 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AINTD HYGIENE. 

don contained over forty per cent, of animal matter— enough 
to make a good glue — and others about the same. The teeth 
resemble bone in their structure, but resist decay longer; 
they are brought up by deep-sea dredging when all other 
parts of the animal have wasted away. 

Bone is said to be twice as strong as oak, and to crush a 
cubic inch of it, a pressure equal to 5,000 pounds is requisite. 
Uses of Bones. — The uses of bones are : — 

(1.) To give support to the flesh and to hold the body 
erect. A few people have been born with soft bones that 
did not become any harder as they grew older. They 
were consequently never able to sit up or to walk. Man 
is the only animal that can stand upright. This is due 
to the position and shape of his spinal column, which has 
three slight graceful curves, and which holds the head up 
instead of letting it hang down as in all the lower animals. 
(2.) To protect soft parts which would otherwise be 
easily injured. The heart and lungs are held inside of a 
strong, springy framework, made by the ribs and the 
breastbone. The brain, which is very soft and delicate, is 
completely covered by a strong bony box called the skull. 
If the skull is broken open by accident, and the brain in- 
jured, the person generally dies. Therefore it is neces- 
sary that the skull should be so hard that a severe blow 
will not fracture it. A man's brain is larger for his size 
than the brain of any other animal, therefore the skull that 
covers it is proportionally larger. 

(3.) To give great strength and hardness^ and at the same 
time leave the part elastic, as in the wrist and foot. In the 
foot, for instance, there are many small bones joined to- 
gether in such a way that, though they are strong enough 
to bear the weight of the body, they are still elastic enough 
to allow us to jump upon the foot without injury. 

(4.) Lastly, bones are necessary for the purpose of mo- 
tion ; for walking and running, for grasping objects, and 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETOK. 



25 



Bone of Forehead I 
(Frontal). f 

Upper End of Bone / 
of Nose (Nasal). ) 

Cheek Bone (Malar) ., 

Upper Jaw ...... 

Lower Jaw 



Thfi 



Breast-Bone 
(Sternum). ; 



Part of the Spinal") 

Column forming [ 

the Lower Part j 

of the Back. J 

Upper Part of the / 

Hip-bone. J 

Upper End of the J 

Thigh-bone, form- v 

lug the Hip- joint, j 



Bone of Right | 
Thigh (Femur). J 



Right Knee - pan ) 
(Patella). f! 



Inner Bone 
Right Leg (Tibia). 



of* 
ia). ] 



Lower End of ') 
Bones of Right I 
Leg, forming An- j ' 
kle- joint. J 




Back of Skull (Ocn 
ciput). 



1 1 Bones of Spinal 
^ Column forming 
the Neck. 
Upper End of Bone 
of Arm, forming 
the Shoulder- 
joint. 

Bone of Arm (Hu- 
merus). 

One of the Ribs 
(Eighth). 



.. . The Elbow- joint. 

j Outer Bone of 
( Forearm (Radius). 

Inner Bone of 

Forearm (Ulna), 

( Lower End or Tip 

< of the Spinal 

{ Column. 

■The Wrist (Carpus). 

' Bones of Hand 

(Metacarpus). 

Thumb. 



. Index Finger. 



Bone of Left 

Thigh (Femur). 



, .The Knee-joint. 



Outer Bone of Left 
Leg (Fibula). 



Bones of Arch of 
Foot (Tarsus). 

.Bone of the Heel. 

Bones of the Toes 
(Phalanges of 
the Foot). 



PlQ. 5.— The Skeleton. Viewed from the Side, with Outline of the Body. 



26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

for performing the many actions required of us. The 
thigh-bones and the bones of the leg, for instance, are 
necessary for walking. Bones serve as points of attach- 
ment for muscles, and are moved through the action of 
these muscles ; they simply carry out the will of the 
muscles, and these again are directed by our nerves and 
brain. 
Number of Bones. — There are two hundred bones in 
the human body. 



Fig. 6. — The Upper End of the Thigh-bone, where it Forms Part of the Hip-]oint, Sawed 
through Lengthwise, Showing the Porous and Spongy Nature of Bone in Its Interior, and 
also the Commencement of the Central Canal for the Marrow. 



Forms of Bones. — Bones vary very much in form and 
size. Some of them are long, as the thigh-bones (Fig. 21) ; 
others are small and short, such as the eight bones which form 
the wrist (Fig. 20) ; others are flat, as for example the bones 
forming the skull (Fig. 11) ; finally others are of very odd and 
irregular forms, such as the bones which form the spinal 
column (Fig. 16). 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 



27 




Fig. 7.— a Thin Slice of Bone, Cut 
CroBswise, as Seen under the Microscope. 



Structure of Bone. — Each bone is surrounded by a 
very hard layer on the outside, within which the bone is looser 

and porous, having a large num- 
ber of small spaces through which 
the blood-vessels run (Fig. 7). 
The long bones, as those of the 
arm, thigb, and fingers, are hol- 
lowed out in the centre, and in 
this canal we find a fatty sub- 
stance called marrow. This hol- 
lowing out of the bone makes it 
lighter and also stronger than 
it would otherwise be. Bones are closely covered by a tough 
membrane called ihe periosteum, which gives additional strength 
and protection to them. They are 
of a pinkish color during hfe, on ac- 
count of the small blood-vessels run- 
ning through them ; when dead, the 
color of bone changes to white. 

If we take a thin slice of bone, 
and look at it under the microscope, 
we shall see a large number of dark 
spots, with small lines running from 
them (Fig. 7). They correspond to 
the minute spaces which exist even 
in the densest bone, and show that 
it is never entirely solid. 

Composition of Bone. — 
Bone is composed of two parts of a 
hard mineral substance containing a no. a 

iiTi»T 1 £ 1 Leg, Tied into a Knot after the 

great deal of lime, and of one part Hard Mineral Matter has been Dis. 

of a soft material like gelatin. The ^^^^ed out by Acid. 
mineral substance gives the bone its hardness ; the soft mate- 
rial makes it tough and elastic. To prove this we have only 
to dissolve out the mineral substance by a weak acid, and we 




Fig. 8.— The Outer Bone of the 
Leg, Tied into a Knot after the 



28 AlS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A^B HYGIENE. 

find that we can now bend the bone in any direction because 
it has lost its hardness ; if it be long enough, we can even tie 
it in a knot without breaking it, as is shown in Fig. 8. 

, If, on the other hand, we put the bone into the fire, the 
gelatine will be driven off, and then the bone will have the 
same form as before, but will be very brittle and crumble very 
easily. 

In the baby, the bones consist very largely of a soft 
material, called cartilage. This is the reason why the baby 
cannot stand, or, if it is allowed to stand too soon, the bones 
of the legs may become bent, because they are not yet hard 
enough to bear the weight of the body. Gradually, as the 
baby grows, the hard matter is added. In young persons the 
bones are always softer than in the aged, and therefore do not 
break so easily. In old persons there is less gelatine and a 
larger proportion of the brittle mineral substance than in 
youth ; hence their bones are more brittle and are more 
easily broken, or, as the surgeons would say, are more liable 
to fracture. 

Care of the Skeleton. — If we wish to have erect and 
graceful bodies when we grow up, we must take care of them 
while we are young. It is while we are young that the bones 
are still soft and easily shaped. We should always remember 
to stayid and sit erect, with the chest thrown forward and the 
shoulders back ; in this way we may avoid stooping and round 
shoulders. 

We should not wear any clothing which is too tight. How 
often do we see misshapen chests in girls because they have 
worn dresses which were too tight. Fig. 72 is the picture of a 
chest which has become deformed through tight dressing. If 
we compare it with Fig. 18, which represents a healthy chest, 
we cannot fail to notice the difference. 

We must be careful to get shoes of proper size ; for if 
they are too small or too pointed our feet will become deformed, 
our toes bent and crooked, and painful corns and bunions will 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETOIS". 



29 



result. Such deformities are shown in Fig. 10. Girls should 
not be allowed to wear high heels, as they crowd the foot into 
the front part of the shoe, thus making the toes overlap. 
Shoes with high heels do not support the weight of the body 
properly, because they throw the upper part of the body for- 
ward. Another objection to high heels is the danger of acci- 
dents from falling and of spraining the ankle. 

Fracture of a Bone. — When a bone is broken the ac- 
cident is quite serious, and is called a fracture. The doctor is 
called and he sets the bone, that is, he brings the two broken 





Fig. 9.— a Natural Foot. 



Fig. 10. — A Foot which has Become De- 
formed and Affected with Corns and Bunions 
as a Result of Tight and Ill-fitting Shoes. 



ends of the bone together, and keeps them in position by band- 
aging them to a piece of thin board so that they cannot be 
moved ; then a soft material is formed between the two pieces, 
'which gradually hardens and joins the two ends together. If 
properly taken care of, a broken bone becomes united again in 
several weeks, and is then as strong as it was before. If we 
happen to break a bone we must remember to keep as quiet as 
possible until the doctor arrives, so as not to move the injured 
part, and thus make matters much worse. 

Effect of Alcohol upon the Bones. — The bones do 
not stop growing until one is twenty-five years of age. It is 



30 AlS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

therefore important that they should have plenty of good 
blood to nourish them. As the blood flows through the lit- 
tle cavities, in and out of the fine network and marrow, the 
bones have the power to take from it what they need and turn 
it into new bone. But from alcohol they can get no bone- 
making material. The foods that bones need to make the 
mineral substance hard and strong, are phosphates, such as 
are found in fish, oatmeal and brown bread, and to make the 
gelatine part grow in a healthy way, such food as is found in 
beef and mutton. But a person who drinks alcoholic liq- 
uors may lose his natural taste for such nourishing food ; 
then the bones do not get all they need for their growth. 
If children or young people are given such drinks they are 
liable to remain small and undeveloped, instead of becoming 
strong, finely built men and women. Children who are under- 
fed and overworked never grow very tall or large, because 
their bones are starved ; but often the sons of wealthy men 
are no better in their physical appearance than the sons of 
the very poor, for the use of alcoholic drinks has prevented 
their bones from growing. 

The bones of drunkards break more easily than the bones 
of temperate people, because they are poor in quality and 
brittle. And when they are set the thin alcohol-poisoned 
blood that flows through them, does not form enough of the 
substance that knits them together. Therefore the broken 
arm or leg which quickly unites in a young person of regular 
habits, becomes a very serious thing in a man who is in the 
habit of taking strong drink. And if the break be a compound 
fracture — that is, a break of the bone together with an open 
wound in the flesh — it is almost impossible to prevent blood- 
poisoning from setting in, in which case the man may die. 

Effect of Tobacco upon the Bones.— It is but sel- 
dom one finds a tall, finely built man who has smoked habit- 
ually since he was a young boy. Nearly all boy smokers 
^row to be short, stunted men. The reason for this is that 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 31 

tobacoo contains a poison called nicotine, which has a very bad 
effect on the blood. In addition to impoverishing the blood, 
smoking takes away the appetite, and the bones suffer with the 
rest of the body for lack of food. It is no use to try to make 
one's self taller after the bones have stopped growing. The 
Scripture says: ''No man by taking thought can add one 
cubit to his stature." But any boy by using forethought 
and common sense can grow to the fullest possibility of his 
own individual body, and it is not an exaggeration to say that 
a boy who smokes cigarettes is deliberately throwing away 
several inches of his manhood's height. 

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SKELETON. 

We may divide the skeleton into four parts : — 

(1.) Bones of the head. 

(2.) Bones of the trunk. 

(3.) Bones of the upper limbs. 

(4.) Bones of the lower limbs. 

Bones of the Head. — The bones of the head taken 
together form the skull (Figs. 11, 12, and 13). The skull is 
made up of twenty-two bones. Eight of these are joined 
together at the upper and back part, forming an oval box of 
bone in which the brain is contained, and called the cranium. 
The front part of the skull, formed by the remaining fourteen 
bones, is called the face. 

The Cranium. — The portion of the cranium which 
forms the forehead is called the frontal bone (1, Fig. 13). In 
the lower animals, such as the dog and the cat, the forehead is 
very low and slanting ; in the negro race it is less slanting ; 
while in the white races it is almost upright. Usually the 
prominence of the forehead indicates the development of the 
brain ; and in those who have spent much time in study it is 
usually very prominent. Behind, the cranium is formed by the 
occipital bone (3, Fig. 13). Above, two bones, known as the 
parietal (2, Fig. 13), join together to form the top of the skull. 



32 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEKE. 

On the side of the head, just below where the hair ends, is a 
spot called the temple ; the bone which forms this part of the 
skull is called the temporal bone (4, Fig. 13). 

Most of the bones of the cranium have ragged edges look- 
ing like the teeth of a saw (Figs. 12 and 13), and when the 
bones are joined these teeth fasten the bones together just as if 
you spread out the fingers of one hand and then put them in the 




Fig. 11.— The Skull, Front View. 

spaces between the fingers of the other. In this way the bones 
are firmly united, and yet there is space between the edges so 
that they can give a little. This space is very important, for if 
these bones could not give at all, every blow upon the head 
would injure the soft, delicate brain within. The muscles, skin, 
and hair on the head also serve to break the force of blows. 

The Face. — Looking at the skull in front (Fig. 11) we 
see two large openings just below the forehead, which are 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 



33 




Fig. 12.— The Human Skull, Looked at from the Side. 




Fig. la— The Bones of the Skull Separated. 1, Frontal; 2, Parietal; 3, Occipitall 
4, Temporal ; 5, Nasal ; 6, Malar ; 7, Upper Jaw ; 8, Lachrymal ; 9, Lower Jaw. 



34 



a:n^atomy, physiology, akb hygiene. 



known as the orbits and receive the eyes. Below and between 
these is the triangular opening of the nose, bounded above by 
two small bones (5, Fig. 13) called the 72asal bones. To the 

outer side and below the orbits 
are the bones which form the 
prominence of the cheeks, and 
are called the malar bones (6, 
Fig. 13). At the lowest part 
of the face are the two jaws, 
the upper (7, Fig. 18) and the 
lower (9, Fig. 13). The upper 
jaw is firmly joined to the rest 
of the skull ; the lower jaw re- 
sembles a horseshoe in shape, 
and is separate from the rest 
of the skull, though connected, 
of course, during life, to the 
sides of the face by strong 
bands and muscles. Each jaw 
has a circular row of teeth, 
about which more will be said 
in the chapter on Digestion. 
Between these two rows of teeth 
is the mouth. 

The skull rests upon the 
upper end of the spinal col- 
umn and is very movable, so 
that it can be bent forward or 
backward, or from side to side, 
and can be turned in any direc- 
tion. 

Bones of the Trunk. — The bones of the trunk are: 
the bones forming the spinal column, the hip-bone, the collar- 
bone, the shoulder-blade, the breast-bone, and the ribs. 

The Spinal Column,— This is the row of bones 



Fio. 14.— The Spinal Fig. 15.— The Spinal 
Column, as Seen Column, as Seen 
from Front. from the Side. 



THE FKAMEWORK OR SKELETO]^. 



35 



which extends from the skull above to the lower limbs below. 
There are thirty-three of these bones piled one upon another ; 
but in the grown person there are fewer, because the lowest 
nine bones unite so as to form but two ; of these five form the 
upper one, called the sacrum, and four unite to form the tip of 
the spinal column, called the coccyx. There are thus really 
but twenty-six separate bones in the spinal column. Each of 
these twenty-six bones is called a vertebra, and all of them 
taken together are known as 
the vertehrce. The spinal col- 
umn is often called the hack- 
hone, on account of its extend- 
ing along the middle of the 
back. The vertebrae are con- 
nected by circular plates of 
gristle, or cartilage, and by 
fibres. This cartilage and the 
fibres are elastic, and thus 
it is that our backbone is 
very movable — we can bend 
it in any direction or twist it 
because the cartilage gives. 
This also explains why it is 
that at night we are a trifle 

, . ., . .1 . Fig* 16. — Three Vertebrae from the Lower 

snorter tnan m the morning. Part of the Spinal column, separated. 

for the weight of the body has 

caused these plates of cartilage between the vertebrse to be 
compressed slightly, while after a rest during the night, they 
regain their usual thickness. There is an opening in each of 
the vertebrae, and when they are all in position, these openings 
connect and form a canal, the spinal canal, which runs all 
through the backbone. This canal holds the delicate spinal 
cord, from which nerves emerge through small openings on 
each side of the spinal column. At the upper end of the spinal 
canal it communicates with the cavity of the skull by means of 




36 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



a large oval opening, through which the spinal cord and the 
brain are directly continuous. If you run your finger along the 
middle of the back, you can feel projecting points ; these are 
the tips of the vertebrae. 

The Hip-bones {H, Fig. 21 and Fig. 17) are the two 
large and strong bones which are placed on each side of the 
lower end of the spinal column, forming with it a sort of basin 
which is called the pelvis. On the outer side of each hip-bone, 




fto. IT.— The Pelvis, formed by the Lower End of the Spinal Column and the Hip bones. 



at about its middle, will be noticed a deep, round depression ; 
in this fits the upper end of the thigh-bone. 

The Collar-bone, or Clavicle (Figs. 4 and 19, (7), is 
the curved bone which we feel at the upper part of the chest in 
front, being connected wdth the breast-bone at its inner end. 

The Shoulder-blade, or Scapula (Fig. 19, B), is the 
large triangular bone which we feel at the upper part of the 
chest behind. It lies behind the upper ribs. At its outer 
angle is a round depression into which the upper, ball-like end 
of the bone of the arm fits. 

The Breast-bone, also called the sternum (Fig. 19, 8), 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETOIN". 37 

is a flat bone, broad above and gradually tapering toward 
its lower end. It forms a strong guard to the front of the 
chest. Along its edges the ribs are attached on each side. 

The RibSs — There are twenty-four ribs, twelve on each 
side. They are long, slender, curved bones, which form the 
outer boundary of the chest. They are very elastic. All the 
ribs hve joined behind to the vertebrae of the back. The first 
seven are attached to the breast-bone in front, and are called 




Fig. is.— The Chest, or Thorax. 

true ribs ; the last five are not attached to the breast-bone 
in front, and are called /aZs^ ribs; the upper three of these, 
namely, the eighth, ninth, and tenth, are connected with carti- 
lage in front, but the last two are entirely free in front, and 
are called floating ribs. 

The Chest, or Thorax (Fig. 18). — It has already been 
explained that this is the large cavity just below the neck which 
serves to hold the heart and lungs. These organs are of great 
importance, and are nicely boxed in by the bones we have just 



38 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



studied ; namely, the breast-bone in front, the ribs on each 
side, the collar-bone above, and the backbone behind. There 

are, of course, spaces between 
these different bones, but in 
the living body they are filled 
with muscles. A flat sheet of 
muscle-tissue also bounds the 
chest below and separates it 
from another cavity, situated 
just below it, the abdomen. 
This muscular partition is 
called the diaphragm. 

Bones of the Upper 
Limb. — These are: the bone 
of the arm (humerus) ; the two 
bones of the forearm (radius 
and ulna) ; and the small bones 
forming the hand. 

The Bone of the Arm 
is a single bone, known as the 
humerus. It is a strong bone 
and extends from the shoulder 
to the elbow. Its upper end 
has an enlargement, shaped 
like a ball, which fits into the 
cup-shaped depression, seen at 
the outer angle of the shoulder- 
blade. 

The Bones of the 
Forearm- — There are two 
bones in the forearm, an outer, 
the radius, and an inner, the 

Fig. 19. — The Bones of the Upper Limb, , rT^^ i t • t i 

.S', Breast-bone (Sternum); C, Collar-bone Ulna. ibcy are placed SldC by 
(Clavicle) : B, Shoulder-blade (Scapula) ; A, . -, ,-> -t , i v 

Bone of Arm (Humerus) ; i^, Bones of Fore. Side, the SpaCC bctWCen them 

arm (Radius, Ulna) ; TT, Bones of Wrist ; ^, i • r^^^ l ' il. « ,^«v^T^««^^ 

Bones of Hand. being tilled With a membrane 




THE FRAMEWOKK OR SKELETON. 



39 



and Hand. — There are 
The hand may be divided 



and muscles. They extend from the elbow to the wrist. In 
twisting the forearm the radius revolves around the ulna, which 
is the less movable of the two. 

The Bones of the Wrist 

twenty-seven bones in each hand, 
into three parts : The icrid, or car- 
jjus ; i\\Q palm, ov /inetacai' pus ; and 
i\\Q finger SyOv phalanges. The ivrist 
is the most solid -^^Yi and is made 
up of eight small bones, more or 
less rounded or cubical in shape, 
closely held together by tough 
bands. This arrangement serves to 
make the wrist very strong and 
still very light. The bones form- 
ing the palm of the hand are five 
in number. 'Fidioh finger has three 
bones, the end of one being joined 
to that of the other, excejDt the 
thumb, which is shorter and has 
but two such phalanges; this ar- 
rangement of the bones of the fin- 
gers allows them to move very 
dexterously. 

Bones of the Lower 
Limb. — These comprise the thigh- 
hone (femur), the bones of the leg Fig.20.— The Bones of the Wrlst and 
^-^ ^ *-» Hand. Above is also seen the lower 

itihia and fibula), the knee-pan (pa- ends of the radius and ulna, taking 
^ ' r» 1 /» '^^^^ "^ forming the wrist-joint. 

tella), and the bones of inefoot. 

The Thigh-bone, or Femur, is the largest and strong- 
est bone in the body, and is surrounded by more muscle than 
any other bone. Where it is attached to the hip-bone it has a 
large spherical part called its head, and this forms an angle with 
the rest of the bone by a part called the neck. Below, the thigh- 
bone joins with the bones of the leg and with the knee-pan. 




40 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK. 




Fig. 21. — 
The Bones of 
the Lower 
Limb. B, the 
lower end of 
the Spinal 
Column (Sa- 
crum and Coc- 
cyx); ff^ the 
Hip-bone; T, 
. ,^ ^ the Thigh- 

bone (Femur) .- K, the Knee-pan 
(Patella) ; Z, the Kones of the Leg 
^Ji?,ia and Fibula); F, the Bones 
of the Foot. 



The Knee-pan, or Patella, 

IS the small, round, flattened bone 
which can be felt at the knee. It 
serves as a protection to the joint 
and often saves it from injury in falls 
and blows. 

The Bones of the Leg.— 

There are two bones in each leo- The 
inner bone is the shorter and stronger 
of the two, and is called the tibia. 
The outer bone is longer and more 
slender; it is called the fibula. These 
two bones, ijlaced side by side, extend 
from the knee to the ankle. 

The Bones of the Foot.— 
Each foot is formed by twenty-six 
bones, one less than in the hand 
Seven of these form the solid back 
part of the foot, called the tarsus 
which includes the heel; five form the 
arch or instep, also known as the met- 
atarsus; and the remaining fourteen 
form the toes or phalanges. Thus it 
will be seen, that there are as many 
bones in the toes as in the fingers • 
but the toes are much less movable' 
bemg simply intended for support of 
the body and for walking; however 
when they are trained to do other 
things, they may become almost as 
mmble as the fingers are. The heel is 
the most solid part of the foot and the 
strongest. The sole of the foot, be- 
tween the heel and the toes, forms an 
arch at the inner border of the foot j 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 



41 



which arch breaks the force of jumps from heights. If we are 
compelled to jump from a height, there is the least disagree- 
able effect and danger to the body if we alight on our toes, or 
just behind the toes, upon the soft cushion known as the hall 
of the foot, for when we reach the ground upon the heel, the 
shock is transmitted through the entire body, and gives rise to 
a very disagreeable sensation, and possibly even to injury. 



SYNOPSIS. 



Position — 1. Internal in higher animals. 2. 

External in some of lower animals. 
Uses of the bones : 1. Support to rest of body. 
2. Protection to delicate organs. 3. Strength 
and hardness. 4. Motion, by serving as 
points of attachment for muscles. 
Number of Bones : Two hundred. 
Forms of Bones : 1. Long. 2. Short. 3. Flat. 

4. Irregular. 
Structure of Bone : ] . Outer dense layer. 2. In- 
terior porous and light. 3. Central canal 
filled with marrow in long bones. 4. Blood- 
vessels pass through it, giving pink color 
during life. 5. Covered by membrane (peri- 
osteum) . 
Composition of Bone : 

1. Animal matter— About one-third in amount. 

Larger proportion in early life. 
Gives toughness and elasticity. 
2. Mineral matter — About fcwo-thirds in amount. 

Larger proportion in advanced life. 
Gives rigidity. 
Care of the Skeleton : 

1. Avoid faulty positions, to prevent stooping and round 
shoulders. 

2. Avoid tight clothing, to prevent deformed chests. 




42 AXATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A^D HYGIENE. 

3. Avoid faulty shoes, to prevent deformities of the feet, corns, 
bunions, and accidents. 

4. Extensive indulgence in alcoholic drinks and other nar- 
cotics may j^revent bones from growing to natural size. 

5. When general health suffers, growth of bones is inter- 
fered with. 

Fracture of a Bone : 

1. ''Setting" the bone. 

2. To prevent further injury, the broken part should be kept 
quiet until the doctor arrives. 

3. Method of healing by material binding the two ends to- 
gether. 

Parts of the skeleton ; — 

1. The Head : 

a. Cranium — 1. Frontal. 

2. Parietal. 

3. Occipital. 

4. TemjDoral, etc. 
h. Face — 1. Nasal 

2. Malar. 

3. Upper jaw. 

A. Lower jaw, etc. 

2. The Trunk: 

a. Spinal column (composed of 33 vertebrae) . 

b: Chest (formed by vertebrae, sternum, clavicle, and ribs). 

c. Eibs— 1. True. 

2. False (including two floating ribs). 

d. Collar-bone (Clavicle). 

e. Shoulder-blade (Scapula). 
/. Breast-bone (Sternum). 

g. Pelvis (formed by lower end of s^oinal column and 
hip-bones. 

3. The Upper Limb : 

a. Bone of arm (humerus). 

h. Bones of forearm — 1. Badius. 

2. Ulna. 
G, Bones of hand — 1. Wrist (Carpus). 

2. Palm (Metacarpus). 

3. Fingers (Phalanges). 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETOJ^. 43 

4. The Lower Limb : 

a. Bone of thigh (Femur). 
h. Knee-pan (Patella). 

c. Bones of the leg — 1. Tibia. 

2. Fibula. 

d. Bones of foot — 1. Heel (Tarsus). 

2. Arch (Metatarsus). 

3. Toes (Phalanges). 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by the word "skeleton?" 2. How does the 
skeleton of a crab and lobster differ from that of man ? 3. What are 
the uses of bone ? 4. How many bones are there in the human 
body ? 5. Mention the different forms of bones. 6. Which part of 
the bone is the hardest ? 7. How does the inner part of the bone 
differ from the outer layer ? 8. What is marrow ? 9. Of what sub- 
stances is bone composed? 10. How can you show that bone is 
made up of these two substances ? 11. How do the bones of a baby 
differ from those of a middle-aged man ? 12. How do the bones of 
an old man differ from those of a younger man ? 13. Tell something 
about the care of the skeleton. 14. Why is it necessary to sit and 
to stand erect ? 15. What happens when we wear our clothing too 
tight ? 16. What is a fracture ? 17. What effect may alcohol and 
tobacco have upon our skeleton ? 18. What effect does smoking 
have upon the size of boys ? 19. Will the growth of our bones 
take place properly if our health is poor? 20. Into what four dif- 
ferent parts can we divide the skeleton ? 21. What are the bones 
of the head taken together called? 22. What is the cranium and 
how many bones join to form it ? 23. How are the bones of the 
cranium united ? 24. Where is the frontal bone ? 25. What does 
the prominence of the forehead show? 26. Where are the orbits? 
27. What is peculiar about the lower jaw ? 28. Name the bones of 
the trunk. 29. What are the vertebrae ? 30. How many are there ? 
31. How are they connected together? 32. What opening is there 
in the spinal column ? 33. What can you say about the hip-bones ? 
34. Where is the collar-bone ? 35. Where is the shoulder-blade ? 
36. What is another name for the breast-bone ? 37. What is its 



44 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIS^D HYGIENE. 

use? 38. How many ribs are there? 39. What does a rib look 
like? 40. Which are the true ribs? 41. Which are the false ribs ? 

42. What is a floating rib, and which ribs are called floating ? 

43. What is the chest, and what does it contain ? 44. Wliat is 
another name for it ? 45. What bones form the boundaries of the 
chest ? 46. What is the diaphragm, and what cavities does it sep- 
arate ? 47. What bones are there in the upper limb ? 48. How 
many bones are there in the arm ? 49. How many in the forearm? 
50. How many bones are there in the hand ? 51. How is the wrist 
formed ? 52. How many bones are there in each finger ? 53. How 
many bones are there in each lower limb ? 54. Which is the largest 
bone in the body ? 55. Describe the thigh-bone. 56. How many 
bones are there in the leg ? 57. Describe the knee-pan and its use. 
58. How many bones in the foot ? 59. Which are the more movable, 
the toes or the lingers ? 60. Which is the strongest part of the 
foot ? 61. In jumping from a height, upon what part of the foot 
should we alight, and why ? 62. What are the dangers of high 
heels? 63. What are the effects of too small or badly-formed 
shoes ? 



CHAPTER III. 

THE JOINTS. 

Wherever two or more bones meet is a joint. Joints 
arfe necessary in order that one part of the body may move 
independently of the other. If this arrangement did not exist, 
we should have to move the entire body whenever we wanted 
to move any part of it. If you observe how a man walks when 
his knee-joint, for instance, is stiff and cannot be used, you will 
appreciate how useful joints are. The more joints there are in 
any part of the body the more movable is that part ; notice, for 
instance, how movable the fingers are and how many joints 
there are in the hand. 

According to the amount of motion which they permit, 
joints are divided into three classes : 

{!.) Immovable joints, in which there is no visible 
motion. 

(2.) Slightly-movable joints, in which there is slight mo- 
tion only. 

(3.) Ilovable joints, in which there is free motion. 
Immovable Joints. — The best example of this form of 
joint is seen in the skull. The flat bones of the skull are 
fastened together by means of the small projections from their 
edges. Such joints are called sutures. They are very well 
adapted to what is required here, because being closely joined 
they make a strong box of the bones of the skull, and yet they 
are capable of a very little motion, enough to break the force 
of blows upon the head. In this way they serve as additional 
protection to the brain. 

Fig. 22 shows the sutures which we find on the upper 
surface of the skull. In front, joining the frontal bone with 



46 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

the two parietal bones, there is a suture which extends across 
the skull from one side to the other. It is called the coronal 
suture, from the Latin word corona, which means crown, be- 
cause the front part of the crown of a king is supposed to 
rest upon this line. Behind, where the occipital bone meets 
the two parietal bones is another suture, called the lamhdoid, 




Fig. 22.— View of the Skull from Above, Showing the Sutures. 

on account of its resemblance to the Greek letter lambda (A). 
Between these two sutures, the coronal and the lambdoid, is 
another w^hich connects the two parietal bones. It is called the 
sagittal suture, from the Latin word sagitta (an arrow), because 
it was thought to join the coronal suture as an arrow meets the 
string of a bow. 

Slightly movable Joints- — In these joints a fair 
amount of motion is allowed, but much less than in the next 
class — the movable joints. We find examples of slightly movable 
joints between the different vertebrae forming the spinal column. 

Movable Joints. — These are the most numerous and 



THE JOINTS. 47 

the most interesting. In all movable joints the same general 
arrangement exists : the ends of the bones forming the joint 
are covered with gristle or cartilage, a dense, semi-transparent 
substance much softer than bone, acting as a cushion to the 
ends of the bones, so that they are not bruised or injured when 
the joint is moved, or when the ends are brought together 
forcibly, as in jumping. 

If two surfaces rubbing against each other were dry they 
would soon be rubbed off; hence it is necessary to keep a 
joint moist all the time. In machinery this is accomplished 
by oil. In the living body the same thing is done by a yellow- 
ish fluid looking like the white of an egg, which constantly 
covers the ends of these bones. This fluid is given off from 
the inner surface of a sac which lines all movable joints. This 
sac or membrane is called the synovial membrane, and the fluid 
which it gives off is called synovial fluid. The ends of the 
bones forming joints are held in 23lace and connected by strong 
bands of tough tissue, which pass from one bone to the other, 
and are called ligaments. This is shown in Fig. 23, which 
represents a joint cut in two ; the bands on the outside, one 
on each side, passing from the upper to the lower bone, are 
the ligaments. Sometimes these are so extensive as to sur- 
round the entire joint, and thus be a cover to it. This entire 
covering is called the capsular ligament, because it is like a 
capsule ; this is seen in Fig. 24. 

Varieties of Movable Joints. — There are four varie- 
ties of movable joints : 

(1.) Gliding-joint — in which one bone slides upon the 
other, as between some of the small bones forming the 
wrist. 

(2.) IIinge-]omt — in which one bone swings forward and 
backward from the end of the other, just as a door opens 
and closes upon its hinges. A good example of this form 
of joint is seen in the connection of the arm with the fore- 
arm at the elbow. 



48 AI^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

(3.) Pivot']omt — in which one bone turns upon the othei 
by an arrangement resembUng a pivot. This is seen in 
the connection between the skull and the upper end of the 
spinal column. 





Fig. 23. — One of the Movable Joints Sawed Fig. 24. — The Hip- joint, Showing the 

through Lengthwise, with the Different Parts Capsular Ligament Surrounding the Junc- 

in their Proper Position, thus Showing the tion between the Hip-bone Above and the 

General Arrangement in Joints. Thigh-bone Below. 

(4.) Ball-and-socket-joint This is a form of movable joint 
in which the greatest amount of motion is allowed. One 
bone ends in an enlargement like a ball which fits into a 
socket of the other bone ; hence the term ball-and-socket. 
Examples of this form of joint are seen in the shoulder 
and hip. 
Accidents to Joints- — When one of the bones which 
forms the joint is not in its correct position and no longer fits 
on the end of the other, we say that it is out of joint or dis- 
located. This accident is very painful. The bones must be put 
in joint again by the surgeon. Often the capsular ligament 
is torn. The accident is usually the result of falls. Many such 
falls take place in getting off street-cars, especially if the car 



THE JOINTS. 49 

has not come to a full stop, and the person does not remember 
to get off facing the horses. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Definition — The place of meeting of two or more bones. 

Uses — To allow greater freedom of motion. 

Varieties — According to amount of motion permitted • 

1. Immovable— no visible motion — sntnres : 

a. Coronal. 
5. Lambdoid. 
c. Sagittal, etc. 

2. Slightly-movable — slight motion. 

3. Movable — free motion. 

a. Ends covered with cartilage. 
h. Upon this is synovial membrane. 

c. Kept lubricated by synovial fluid. 

d. Bones connected and held in place by ligaments. 

e. Four different forms : 

1. Gliding- joint. 

2. Hinge- joint. 

3. Pivot- joint. 

4. Ball-and-socket-joint. 
Accidents — Dislocations — out of joint. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. "What is a joint in anatomy ? 2. What advantage is there in 
having joints in the body? 3. What classes of joints are there? 
4. Give an example of an immovable joint. 5. What is a suture ? 
6. Name the most important sutures of the skull, and describe each 
one. 7. Give an example of a slightly movable joint. 8. Describe 
the general arrangement in movable joints. 9. How are such joints 
kept moist? 10. What is cartilage ? 11. What are ligaments ? 12. 
How are the ends of bones forming joints held in place ? 13. What 
is a capsular ligament? 14. What forms of movable joints are 
there? 15. What is a gliding joint? 16. Give an example. 17. 
What is a hinge joint ? 18. Give an example. 19. What is a pivot 
joint? 20. Give an example. 21. What is a ball-and-socket joint? 
22. Give an example. 23. What is a dislocation ? 



50 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGIC, AND HYGlENE. 




Fig. 25.— The Muscles of the Human Body (the Skin having been Removed). 



CHAPTEE IV. 
THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 

Thus far we have been studying the framework of the 
body and we found this to consist of about two hundred bones, 
which together we spoke of as the skeleton ; we found also that 
these bones were held together by tough tissues, called cartilage 
and ligaments ; we saw that there were a great many joints, so 
that one bone could move upon another. All these formed the 
framework. Over this is a s©ft, but firm and elastic, covering 
which we call the flesh. It is composed chiefly of bands of 
tissues called muscles. These are overlaid with fat, which is 
covered with skin, and all are threaded with innumerable 
nerves and blood-vessels. We shall first study the muscles. 

Function, or Work of the Muscles. — Muscles give 
us the power of moving the different parts of the skeleton. Our 
skeleton would be of very little value to us if we could not 
move the different bones ; just as the sails of a ship would be 
of little use unless there were ropes and pulleys to hold and 
move them. 

Description of Muscle Tissue. — The chief part of 
beef and mutton which we eat is muscle tissue. It is red, 
owing to the blood which circulates through every part of it. 
A muscle is composed of innumerable fibres, which lie side 
by side like a bundle of threads. These bundles are bound 
together with sheaths of thin transparent connective tissue. 
A great many taken together form a whole muscle, as, for in- 
stance, the biceps. This connective tissue may be seen in 
chipped beef as a fine network of white veins, for salting 



52 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




T-T 



causes it to turn hard and white. Each individual fibre is 
made up of smaller and still smaller fibres, which can only be 

seen under a microscope. Some 
of these finest fibres which be- 
long to the voluntary muscles 
are striped, while others are like 
long narrow spindles. (Fig. 26.) 
Tendons. — Muscles are not 
themselves directly attached to 
the bone, but are attached to 
strong tough cords, known as 
tendons, which connect them 
with it. The ten- 
dons are white and 
shining and hence can 
easily be distinguished 
from the muscles. 
They are of great 
strength, and it is very rare for any of them to 
break. The central, thick, fleshy part of a muscle 
is called its hdly. In Fig. 27 the belly of the mus- 
cle is marked B, the ends or tendons T, If you 
feel the fleshy mass on the front of the forearm, 
you are feeling muscle. But if you put your finger 
at the wrist, and open and close your hand, you 
will feel hard cords move; these are the tendons 
of the muscles of your forearm and serve to attach 
the muscles to the bones of your fingers. 

Fat. — The different muscles always have a 
little fat mixed with them which cannot be sepa- 
rated. 



Fig. 26.— a Piece of a Muscle Sei)a- 
rated into its Fibres and Showing the 
Striped Appearance of the Fibres. (Mag- 
nified several hundred times.) 



Fig. 27. — a 

But, besides this smaller quantity, there m^uI'ci e^.^^^B^ 
is more or less fat in layers between the different Tendons.^' ^' 
muscles ; there is also fat covering the muscles and 
between the muscles and the skin, 
to be lean. 



Meat free from fat is said 



THE MUSCLES AISTD MOTIOIS^. 53 

Uses of Fat. — A certain amount of fat is necessary, 
and it is useful in the following ways : 

(1.) It keeps the body ivarm. Fat does not allow the 
heat of the body to pass out readily, and so it protects us from 
the cold. 

(2.) It protects the body from pressure. Just beneath the 
skin-is a layer of fat, thick at some places, and thin at others. 
Where the body is exposed to much pressure the layer of fat is 
thick, preventing us from feeling the weight of the body. In 
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, for example, 
there is much fat ; otherwise our hands and feet would ache 
every time we used them considerably. 

(3.) Fat is a food. "When persons are deprived of food 
they may live for a number of days, for the fat of their bodies 
is changed into nourishment which the blood takes up and 
furnishes to different parts of the body. As examples of this 
we have cases in which persons who were shipwrecked, or who 
stowed themselves away in the hold of a ship so as to steal a 
passage, have survived many days. The tissue which suffers 
most is the fat ; this disappears, and on this account such 
persons rapidly become very thin. 

(4.) Another use of fat is to give a fine appearance to the 
body. It fills up the uneven spaces that would be left between 
muscles and bones. If it were not for this the entire body 
would be uneven and lumpy. In the baby, where the muscles 
are small and undeveloped and there is considerable fat, the 
outline of the body is nice and round. As the baby gets older 
the muscles become larger, and the amount of fat smaller, 
and the body is no longer so plump and rounded. Where the 
muscles are well exercised much of the fat is absorbed and the 
muscles stand out prominently. But still there is always some 
fat present. 

Kinds of Muscle-tissue.— Muscle-tissue is of two 
kinds. One variety, to which most muscles belong, is under 
the control of the will ; hence such muscles are known as voluu' 



54 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

tary muscles, directed by the will. Such muscles remain in a 
state of rest until we desire to use them. All the muscles on 
the outside of the body are of this class. The muscles of our 
arm, for instance, remain at rest during sleep, and at other 
times when we do not care to make use of them. Voluntary 
muscle-tissue appears striped when looked at under the micro- 
scope. 

The other class of muscles we call involuntary, that is, 
not directed by the will. These muscles are situated inside the 
body ; as examples may be mentioned the heart, the layer of 
muscle which is found in the walls of the stomach and intes- 
tines, and the muscular fibres in the walls of the arteries 
and by which these blood-vessels are made to contract. We 
cannot control the action of these muscles ; they act without 
our being conscious of it, and it is well that it is so. Take 
the heart, for instance ; day and night it is at work pumping 
the blood into the blood-vessels, to be carried all over the 
body. If we had to watch over this organ, to see that it 
kept on beating, we should always have to stay awake ; and 
if we were careless and fell asleep, and the heart stopped be- 
cause we were not directing it to keep on beating, life would 
soon cease. As another example, let us look at the working of 
the stomach. After food enters this organ the muscular fibres 
in its wall begin to contract and move the food about, so as to 
break it up into finer particles ; this is done without our know- 
ing anything about it, and without our being able to control 
it. Involuntary muscle-tissue presents no striped appearance 
under the microscope. 

Mixed Muscles. — Some muscles belong partly to one 
class and partly to the other ; for instance, the muscles be- 
tween the ribs, which move the latter in breathing. These 
act all the time ; yet we may not be aware of their action, which 
continues whether we are asleep or awake. Still we can stop 
breathing for a very short time, or we can breathe more rap* 
idly than is natural for a very short time — but only for a short 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 



55 



time. These muscles are partly voluntary and partly in- 
voluntary. 

How Muscles Act. — The peculiar characteristic of 
.muscle-tissue is its power to contract or to draw up, and then 
relax. An electric shock will cause it to contract, and the 
impulse that travels along the nerve-fibres from the brain has 





1 III 

Fig. 28.—^, a Muscle at Rest ; B, the Fig 29.— The Action of the Biceps Muscle 

same Muscle Contracted. It has become of the Front of the Arm. (The dotted fig- 
shorter, broader, and thicker. ure shows the effect of the contraction upon 

the position of the forearm.) 

the same effect. When the muscle contracts it becomes 
shorter and its ends are nearer together, consequently the 
bones to which it is attached by its tendons are pulled toward 
each other. When a muscle is contracted and relaxed by exer- 
cise in proper amount it grows large and firm and very strong 
— it has become shorter, thicker, and harder. Since the mus- 
cle 'cannot break loose from its attachment to bones, it must 
bring these bones nearer together when it shortens. Fig. 28 
shows a long, fleshy muscle at rest {A), and the same muscle 



56 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



, -L XXJ^IOAV/^WV^ X, 



after contraction (having become shorter, thicker, and broader), 
to the right (B). In Fig. 29 the manner in which the contrac- 
tion of a muscle causes motion is shown. The picture illus- 
trates the biceps muscle on the front of the arm. It is attached 
above to the shoulder-blade (which is the fixed point), and be- 
low to one of the bones of the forearm (the movable attach- 
ment). The dotted figure shows the muscle after it has con- 
tracted — in order to shorten it must bend the forearm, so as 
to bring its two points of attachment nearer together. 

Though muscles have the power to contract, they cannot 
do this unless we direct it ; and the order to act comes from 
the brain. If the brain \Yishes a certain muscle to act, it sends 
it a message, and then the muscle responds. This message goes 
from the brain to the soft, whitish matter in the canal running 
through the centre of the spinal column, known as the spinal 
cord ; from the spinal cord the message is sent directly to the 
muscle by certain white threads, which we call nerves. 

This whole arrangement is very much like a telegraph 
office : the brain corresponds to the office to which messages 
come and from which messages are sent out, and the nerves 
we may liken to the telegraph wires or messengers which carry 
the despatches. The following example will illustrate this : 
Suppose you see an orange on the table before you. The eye 
sends a message to the brain, by means of the nerve of the eye, 
that the orange is there. You are heated and thirsty, and 
would like to eat the orange. The brain then sends out a mes- 
sage to the muscles that move your fingers and to those that 
move your arm that they are to seize the orange, and they 
obey. The message from the brain was carried down through 
the nerve-tissue in the backbone, the spinal cord, then through 
the nerves of the arm to their smallest branches, which pass to 
the muscles. 

Although the muscles contract, and thereby cause the 
movement of the arm, forearm, and fingers, they are only 
the servants of the brain and nerves; without an order from 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. . 57 

the brain through the nerves they could not move. This is 
proven by the fact that when, from an injury, the nerves of the 
forearm are cut across, the muscles of the forearm and hand 
become lame, and we say they are paralyzed. If we examine 
them we may find no change, but they can no longer receive 
orders to act from the brain, and on this account are motion- 
less. * 

Ordinary Muscular Movements are very Com- 
plex. — It is so easy for us to make use of our muscles that 
we are apt to believe every act which they perform very sim- 
ple, but this is not the case. Even the very simplest acts in- 
volve the use of a great many different muscles. When we 
walk, for instance, we do not even give it a thought, yet very 
many different muscles are acting, each one with great skill 
and nicety. It is on this account that man cannot construct 
machinery that will perform many of the things done by his 
hands. No machine could be constructed, for instance, that 
could write, or draw, or paint to imitate the work done by hand. 
Even when we stand there are a number of muscles at work 
balancing the body. After standing a long time, owing to the 
fact that these muscles become worn out, we feel tired. 

Groups of Muscles. — Usually we find that muscles 
occur in sets, or groups, and that one set accomplishes just the 
opposite action from the other. Thus the muscles on the front 
of the forearm serve to close the fingers and hand, while those 
on the back of the forearm serve to open them. The large 
muscle on the back of the arm, called the triceps, straightens 
out ihe forearm, while the thick muscle in front of the arm, 
called the biceps (Fig. 30), bends the forearm upon the arm. 

All the different expressions of the face are produced by 
the action of the small muscles of the face. When they draw 
up the corners of the mouth they give rise to a look of pleasure 
and smiling ; if they draw down the corners of the mouth they 
produce an expression of sadness and displeasure. They may 
wrinkle the forehead horizontally and make the face look in 



58 ANATOMYj PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIE]S"E. 




Fig. 30.— The Muscles of the Front of the 
Chest, Arm, and Forearm. The fan-like 
muscle above and to the left is the " pec- 
toralis;"' in the centre of the arm is seen 
the " biceps." 



doubt, or wrinkle it vertically, 
producing a frown. There are 
many other varieties of expres- 
sion. The expression of the 
face soon becomes that which 
the person himself habitually 
uses. If you look sullen and 
angry all the time the face will 
soon have this expression, be- 
cause the muscles become so ac- 
customed to acting in this way 
that they cannot do otherwise. 
In the same way you may have 
a constant silly expression, if 
you act the part of a fool every 
time you are with your com- 
panions. Some children are in 
the habit of twisting their eyes 
so that they look cross-eyed. 
This they often do to make their 
friends laugh. They should re- 
member that from constantly do- 
ing this the eyes may be injured. 
Number of Muscles. 
— There are about three hundred 
muscles on each side of the body, 
making about six hundred in all. 
Nearly all the muscles occur 
in pairs, that is, are the same 
on one side as on the other. 
A few muscles which exist in 
the middle line of the body 
are single. 

Shape of Muscles.— 
Muscles vary greatly in shape. 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 



59 



The most frequent form is that of a long, fleshy bundle with a 
tendon at either end for fastening it to bone. Sometimes they 
are flattened and placed in layers, as is the case in the muscles 
of the wall of the abdomen. Some muscles consist of flattened 
bundles which come together toward a single point like a fan ; 
such is the muscle of the temple — the temporal muscle. Other 
muscles are square-shaped, and still others form a circular 
ring ; so that there is great variety in the shapes of muscles. 

Size of Muscles. — Here, too, there are the greatest 
differences. Some of the muscles in the interior of the ear are 
only a fraction of an inch in length. Some of those of the eye 
are about an inch in length, while the longest muscle is one 
which extends from the hip to below the knee, and is over two 
feet in length. Between these two extremes there are many 
different sizes. 

A Few Important Mus- 
cles-— It is not necessary for you 
to remember the names of many of 
the muscles, but there are a few 
which are worth remembering, be- 
cause they are important, and be- 
cause we often see them mentioned 
in books and newspapers. They are 
the following : 

The Biceps is the large fleshy 
muscle on the front of the arm, which 
bends the forearm upon the arm 
(Figs. 30 and 31). It can be felt 
upon making this motion. 

The Triceps is the muscle of 
considerable size which can be felt 
upon the back of the arm. It serves 
to straighten out the forearm after the biceps has bent it. 

The Chest-muscle, or Pectoralis (Fig. 30), forms the prom- 
inence at the upper part of the chest on each side. It is trian- 




FiG. 31.— The Biceps and Tri« 
ceps Muscles. 



60 AlS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AISTD HYGIEI^E. 



i 



gular in shape, like a fan. It draws the arm inward across the 
chest. 

The Diaphragm is the sheet of muscle which separates 
the cavity of the chest from that of the 'abdomen. It is of 
great importance, and is one of the principal muscles concerned 
in breathing. It is an involuntary muscle. 

The Tendon of Achilles. — This is 
the strong, thick cord which you can feel at 
the back and lower part of the leg, just above 
the heel. It is the end of a very large and 
powerful muscle which raises the heel when 
we walk. It has received its name from the 
following story: Achilles was a Grecian hero. 
There was supposed to be a river, the Styx, of 
which it was said that whoever bathed in its 
waters could not be wounded. The mother of 
Achilles wishing to preserve her son from all 
future danger, dipped him into this river Styx, 
holding him by the heel. All parts of his body 
were wet except the heel by which he was held, 
and at this place he is said to have received his 
death-wound. 

Effect of Alcohol on the Muscles. — 
You have learned that the muscles cannot act 
without receiving a message from the brain 
through the nerves. This message may be 
prevented from reaching the muscle by press- 
ure, which for a few moments stops the 
nerve-current from acting, as w^hen by sitting 
on 3^our foot or lying on your hand you find 
that the hand or foot is '' asleep." It has 
no sensation except a prickly feeling, and it will not obey 
orders. 

Every time a person takes even a small amount of any 
alcoholic drink, the muscles are affected in somewhat the 



Fig. 32.— The Mus- 
cles of the Back of 
the Leg, showing Be- 
low (* *) the Tendon 
of Achilles. 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTIOIS". 61 

same way, but without the numb feeling. If a man tries to 
aim at a target with a pistol, his brain sends the message to 
hold his hand steady and true. But, try as he will, his hand 
shakes, for the nerves are not able to control the muscles. A 
surgeon needs a very steady hand to perform delicate opera- 
tions ; if his knife slips or goes a little too deep, because his 
muscles have lost their control through drink, he may lose 
the life he is trying to save. Sir Andrew Clark, one of Queen 
Victoria's physicians, says : " Every man who comes to the 
front of a profession in London is marked by this one char- 
acteristic, that the more busy he gets, the less in the shape of 
alcohol he takes, and his excuse is, ' I am sorry, but I cannot 
take it and do my work.' " 

Men who use their fingers for any fine work, such as 
writing, engraving, making watches or fine machinery, as well 
as artists and musicians, find their hands less steady after 
drinking liquor, and though they may be experts, and have 
finely trained muscles, yet if they get into the habit of taking 
alcoholic drinks, their muscles lose their tone, and cannot do 
good work. 

Dr. B. W. Richardson says : " This is because the ner- 
vous control over the muscles is gone. The muscles them- 
selves also fail in power ; they respond more feebly than is 
natural to the nervous stimulus ; they, too, are coming under 
the depressing influence of the paralyzing agent. Their 
structure is temporarily deranged and their contractile pow- 
ers reduced." 

Every automatic muscular movement, such as putting the 
foot down to walk, or extending the hand to grasp something, 
requires a message from the brain, even though we may be 
unconscious of it. A man under the influence of liquor lacks 
what is called perfect co-ordination between the nerves and 
the muscles. He thinks he is going to put his foot on a step, 
but misses it and falls. He has lost control of his muscles ; 
his hands let fall what he thinks he is holding ; his head 



02 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

droops to one side, his mouth is open. The muscles of his 
tongue are not under control, and he stammers and mutters 
unintelligibly. 

Scientific men state that less muscular labor can be per- 
formed under the influence of alcohol than without it. They 
have made experiments upon armies both in hot and cold 
countries, and have found that the men could endure long 
inarches and could figh t better whenthey had been allowed no 
strong drink, even in small quantities, with their rations. Al- 
though the spirits would seem to revive and stimulate them 
for a little while, they would be exhausted sooner when they 
had taken it. All men in training for great muscular con- 
tests give up alcoholic drinks altogether. Even a celebrated 
pugilist adds his testimony to science, and says : '' When it 
comes to business, give me dumb-bells and cold water." 

Effect of Alcohol upon the Muscular Tissue. — 
If you could see under a microscope a piece of muscle taken 
from the body of a man who had been in the habit of indulg- 
ing in intoxicating drinks before his death, you would find it 
pale and flabby and oily in appearance, instead of bright red 
and firm and elastic, as in a similar piece taken from a per- 
son in good health. 

The reason for this is that repeated alcoholic drinks, even 
though they be small and not enough to produce intoxication, 
cause little globules of fat to take the place of healthy mus- 
cle. This is what physicians call "fatty degeneration." A 
leading physician says that when alcoholic drinks are admin- 
istered from the beginning to the end of a fever or chronic 
disease, or drunk in the form of beer, wine, or distilled spirits 
as a beverage, the harm done to the nerve-force and to the 
healthy growth of the tissues directly encourages fatty degen- 
eration in almost every tissue in the body. Beer is distinctly 
an enemy to muscle. Thousands of beer-drinkers who, as 
young men, were strong and muscular, and who weighed 
about one hundred and fifty pounds, have added at least fifty 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 63 

pounds of worthless fat to their bodies at the expense of their 
muscle. They look stout, bloated, and coarse, and their once 
firm muscles are soft and flabby. 

Effect of Tobacco upon the Muscle. — The nicotine 
in tobacco paralyzes the nerves and makes them unable to 
control the muscles, so that cigarette smokers and those that 
use large quantities of tobacco have a slight tremor in the 
hands. Professor Oliver, when at the head of the Depart- 
ment of Drawing at West Point, said that he could invariably 
recognize the user of tobacco by his tremulous hand, and his 
"absolute inability to draw a clean straight line." 

All football players, racers, and rowers, when in training, 
are forbidden the use of tobacco as well as alcoholic drinks, 
and so much importance is attached to this abstinence that, 
if it were known to one side that any man on the other side 
was breaking the rule, the total abstainers would feel sure of 
victory. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Function of Muscle— Power of moving parts of skeleton. 
Description : 

1 . Ked masses commonly called flesh. 

2. Divisible into fibres. 

3. Have the power of contracting or shortening. 

4. Three kinds are : 

a. Voluntary — Under control of the will — on outside of 
body. 

1. Appear striped under the microscope. 

2. End in tendons for attachment to bones. 

3. In contracting, become shorter, thicker, broader, 
and harder. 

h. Involuntary — not under control of the will — heart, 
walls of stomach, and arteries, etc. 

1 . Are not striped as seen under microscope. 

2. No tendons. 

c. Mixed — Consisting partly of voluntary, partly of in- 
voluntary fibres, such as muscles between the ribs. 



64 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

5. More or less fat between the fibres, between the different 
muscles, and covering them. 

6. Muscles usually occur in groups. 
Uses of fat : 

1. To keep the body warm. 

2. To protect the body from pressure. 

3. To serve as a food. 

4. To improve the appearance of the body. 
The Way in which muscles act : 

1. Become shorter. 

2. Become broader. 

3. Become thicker. 

4. Become harder. 

5. Bring together the parts to which attached. 

6. Dependent upon the influence of the brain, spinal cord, 
and nerves. 

7. Ordinary muscular movements very complex 
Number of Muscles — About three hundred on each side. 

Shape of Muscles — Varies greatly : Most frequently, long fleshy 
bundle ; flat, fan -shaped, square-shaped, circular, etc. 

Size of Muscles — Varies greatly ; smallest, a fraction of an inch 
(found in ear) ; largest, over two feet in length (extends from hip- 
bone to leg). 

A Few Important Muscles : 

1. Biceps — Front of arm —bends forearm upon arm. 

2. Triceps— Back of arm — straightens arm. 

3. Pectoralis — Muscle of chest — draws arm across chest. 

4. Diaphragm — Involuntary muscle separating abdomen from 
chest — muscle of breathing. 

5. Tendon of Achilles — Just above heel— lower end of a large 
muscle of leg — has received its name from story concerning 
Achilles. 



THE MUSCLES AISTD MOTIOIS". 65 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What use do we make of muscles? 2. What does muscle-tis- 
sue look like ? 3. What is it commonly called ? 4. What are mus- 
cle-fibres ? 5. What are tendons? 6. Of what use are tendons? 
7. What can you say about the appearance and the strength of ten- 
dons?* 8. How does fat occur with muscle? 9. What are the uses 
of fat in the body? 10. What proof is there that fat is used as 
nourishment by the blood? 11. Is there a larger proportion of fat 
in the bal3y or in the grown person ? 12. What three kinds of mus- 
cle are there ? 13. What is a voluntary muscle ? 14. Give an ex- 
ample? 15. What is an involuntary muscle? 16. Give an ex- 
ample ? 17. Why is it necessary that some muscles shall be invol- 
untary ? 18. Give an example of the working of an involuntary 
muscle. 19. Do muscles ever belong to both classes? 20. Give 
an example. 21. What do we mean when we say a muscle con- 
tracts? 22. How does the muscle change when it acts? 23. Can 
the muscles contract of their own accord? 24. What causes the 
muscle to act ? 25. What part does the brain take in the contrac- 
tion of muscles ? 26. What part do the nerves take in this ? 27. 
How can you prove that muscle itself cannot act without the influ- 
ence of the nerves ? 28. What two sets of muscles do we usually 
find together, and how does one set act toward the other ? 29. Give 
an example of two muscles which have exactly opposite actions ? 
30. How are the different expressions of sorrow, joy, and the like 
produced in the face ? 31. What may result from continually hav- 
ing an ugly or a foolish expression in the face ? 32. How many 
muscles are there in the human body ? 33. Do muscles usually oc- 
cur singly, or are they usually the same on one side of the body as 
on the other? 34. Mention some of the shapes of muscles. 35. 
How do muscles vary in size? 36. Where is the Biceps muscle? 
37. Describe the Triceps muscle. 38. Describe the Diaphragm, 
39. Describe the chest-muscle^ and give its other name. 40. Where 
is the Tendon of Achilles ? 41. From what circumstance did it re- 
ceive its name ? 42. What effect do alcoholic drinks have upon the 
nerves that control the muscles ? 43. What effect does beer have 
upon the tissue of the muscles ? 44. What do scientific men say 
about the amount of muscular energy to be derived from alcohol ? 
45. How does tobacco affect the muscles ? 



CHAPTEK V. 
PHYSICAL EXEECISE. 

The Value of Physical Exercise. — A "souyd mind 
in a sound body " is of far more value than fame or riches. 
But few young people realize that it takes time and thought 
and work to develop their bodies to the greatest perfection. 
Fortunately, the natural desire of children to run and climb 
and play gives them, even in the city, an opportunity to 
exercise. 

Every nation has its outdoor games which require its 
youths to excel in physical strength. Nearly every nation 
has some ball-game which develops the muscles of the arm in 
throwing, and the muscles of the leg in running. The Eng- 
lish have cricket, the Canadians lacrosse, and the Americans 
base-ball. 

The Greeks had a great festival once every four years, 
called the Olympic games, in which the young men ran races, 
jumped, threw quoits, called discoboli, and wrestled. The vic- 
tors were crowned with laurel wreaths. In the same spot 
where the Olympic games took place 2,000 years ago, inter- 
national games were recently held, and youths from* all coun- 
tries attended. Some of the first prizes were won by the 
young men who went from our American universities. 

But although some of them excelled, the majority of the 
American youth is not up to the standard of the ancient 
Greeks. They considered the human body the most beauti- 
ful thing in the world, and they spared no pains to develop 
it. They had magnificent baths where everybody could bathe, 
and thus keep the skin clear and healthy; and they had 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 67 

instructors to teach, the young how to exercise. Their statues 
show how finely the muscles were developed, and how per- 
fectly their bodies were proportioned. 

In the Middle Ages jousts and tournaments were the form 
in which young men took their recreation and exercise ; but 
physical culture was neglected by the students. In the pict- 
ures and statues of monks and saints, we see men represented 
who were very thin and gaunt from fasting, over-study, and 
lack of exercise. A walk in a shaded cloister was all their 
daily recreation, and their bodies grew pale and emaciated. 

Thus we have the two contrasts, the one all body and 
muscle and the other all mind. The sensible boy combines 
the care of his body with the development of his mind, and 
does not let either his sports or his studies take all of his 
time. 

Girls are not, as a rule, as strong as boys, for they gen- 
erally stop playing out of doors when they are about twelve 
years old, and, as a result, they are more apt to be pale and 
weak and to have headaches than boys. They need just as 
much exercise to make strong, healthy women. The coming 
of the bicycle for women will undoubtedly make the next 
generation stronger and healthier, for the short skirt and 
loose shirt-waist give a girl freedom of movement, and the 
exercise develops the muscles, fills the lungs, and takes the 
girl into the fresh air of the country and parks. Tennis and 
basket-ball, which are games particularly suited to girls, give 
the same free muscular movements that boys have. 

Effect of Exercise on the Muscles. — Every time a 
muscle is used, some of the minute cells of which it is made 
up undergo a change. They cast off some waste material 
into the blood to be carried away by the skin or lungs or 
kidneys, and replace it by some new material brought by the 
blood from the food that has just been digested. The more 
the muscle is used the greater is the blood-supply brought 
to it, and the more rapidly are the old cells carried away and 



68 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

replaced by new ones. Thus constant exercise makes a mus- 
cle grow. 

A man whose daily work is wholly muscular develops 
very strong and large muscles, like the village blacksmith in 
Longfellow's poem, 

'* The smith a mighty man was he, 
With strong and sinewy hands, 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 
Were strong as iron bands." 

Yet if such a man were confined to his bed for a month, his 
muscles would shrink away and become soft, and when he 
got up he would hardly have strength to stand. Or if he 
broke his arm and was obliged to wear it in a sling for some 
time, when the splint was removed the arm would be small 
and shrunken and helpless compared with the well arm, and it 
would take much exercise to bring it back to normal size, so 
much do the muscles depend on exercise for their growth. 

People whose work requires no bodily exercise, such as 
clerks, shop girls, factory workers, and all who do their work 
sitting down, have little or no muscular development. The 
muscles of the neck and shoulders are weak, so the head is 
bowed forward instead of being held erect. The muscles of 
the leg and foot are weak, so the step is ungraceful and drag- 
ging instead of light and springing. 

Boys who have military drill, and girls who have calis- 
thenic exercises are always well built and graceful. They 
walk and run and dance well, because their muscles are 
strong enough to support every part of the body equally. 

Effect of too much Exercise upon the Muscles. — 
Exercise is the life of the muscles, and yet they may be ex- 
ercised too much. When one climbs a high mountain with 
no previous exercise, or takes the first long swim of the sum- 
mer, the muscles feel stiff and ache. This is a sign that they 
have been overworked. Every muscle has its limit beyond 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 69 

which it cannot go. You may hold a book at arm's length for 
perhaps three or four minutes, then in spite of all your will- 
power the arm will drop because the muscles are exhausted. 
It is unwise to continue any exercise until the muscles have 
reached the limit of their endurance. When a feeling of 
fatigue comes it is a signal to rest. 

Effect of Exercise on the Skin.— After running or 
taking any hard exercise, the skin is flushed, and becomes 
very warm, but on taking the temperature with a physician's 
thermometer it will be found to be just the same as it was be- 
fore, about 98^^ F. Nevertheless the skin feels much warmer. 
This is because the exercise has made the heart beat much 
faster, and it has pumped the blood into all the fine blood- 
vessels or capillaries that are spread out like a net under the 
skin. But just as food spread out over a plate cools quickly, 
so the blood spread so near the surface of the body is cooled 
as fast as it is heated. 

With exercise comes perspiration, which oozes out from 
little glands all over the skin. When the body is bathed in 
it, the act of evaporating, or drying up the moisture, dissi- 
pates the heat from the skin, so that exercise not only heats 
and flushes the skin but at the same time provides a way to 
cool it off and keep the temperature even. 

Experiments and experience have shown that during ex- 
ercise a great deal of waste matter is carried away from the 
skin by means of perspiration. Such matter, if not carried 
off, clogs the skin, and makes it look oily and pimpled. This 
is why people who take plenty of exercise nearly always have 
clear complexions. 

Effects of Exercise on the Lungs, — Bodily exercise, 
such as walking, running, climbing, and rowing, make it nec- 
essary to draw long, deep breaths, which grow faster and 
faster as the exercise increases. With each breath fresh air 
is taken in, and more Oxygen is received by the blood, while 
the impurities are more rapidly given off from it. 



70 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Large gymnasiums have an instrument called a spirome- 
ter, that tests the capacity of the lungs. One takes a long, 
deep breath and then blows the air out through a tube. An 
index needle then shows how many cubic inches of air there 
were in that one breath. If the chest is narrow and hollow 
the lungs will hold very little air, and the extreme ends of 
them will rarely be inflated. This renders them very delicate, 
and after a cold one may be in danger of contracting con- 
sumption or pneumonia. 

Daily exercise will increase the capacity of the lungs and 
make them do better work. Walking with the head erect and 
drawing long, deep breaths through the nostrils, not through 
the mouth, as well as singing or reading aloud, are excellent 
exercises to make the lungs strong and healthy. But these 
cannot be accomplished if the clothing is tight, especially by 
girls who wxar tight corsets, and who most of all need deep 
breathing. If the ribs are pressed in, as in Fig. 72, it is im- 
possible to fill the lungs with a good breath. . 

Effect of Exercise on the Heart. — The contraction 
of the muscles of the body during exercise forces the blood 
more quickly to the heart, which in turn pumps it away more 
rapidly and in larger quantities all over the body. A person 
w^hose blood is always moving quickly is said to have a good 
circulation. He always feels warm ; but a i)erson who has a 
poor circulation generally has cold, clammy hands and feet. 
Such people need to take more exercise to keep their blood 
moving. . 

When one is asleep the blood flows more slowly and the 
heart does not beat so often, therefore the temperature of the 
body falls a little, and we are obliged to cover ourselves up 
warmly to keep from feeling cold. It is a good thing to take 
a few moments brisk exercise on waking up in the morning 
to rouse the blood into action. 

One must beware, however, of taking too violent exercise, 
for sometimes the heart is overtaxed, and men have often been 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 71 

known to fall in a faint, and sometimes to die at the end of a 
race. A boy often injures his heart, though he may not know 
it at the time, by violent running ; for the excessive exercise 
gives the muscles of the heart more work to do than is nat- 
ural and the heart becomes enlarged by the strain, and all 
through his after life is weaker. 

Effect of Exercise on the Appetite. — Exercise in 
the open air is the best tonic one can have. As fast as the 
waste matter of the various tissues is thrown off by the skin 
and lungs, there is a demand upon the blood for more ma- 
terial to build them up. The blood cannot supply this unless 
plenty of food is put into the stomach. The need of this food 
is made known to a person by the feeling of hunger. When 
a person takes no exercise he does not wear out so many cells, 
therefore the stomach gets no message demanding food, and 
he says he has no appetite. But after a few hours hard ex- 
ercise the food, which before he did not relish, now tastes 
delicious to him, because every part of his body is crying for 
the blood to bring it new material. The faster this wearing 
out and building up of the cells of the body goes on the bet- 
ter a person feels. Therefore a good appetite following exer- 
cise is a sign of health. 

When to Exercise. — It is not wise to exercise just after 
a hearty meal, for the stomach needs the blood in its walls to 
help it secrete the juices that digest the food, and if it is then 
driven rapidly through the body and out to the skin, one is 
apt to have a badly digested dinner and an attack of dys- 
pepsia. Nature provides against exercise after eating by 
making us feel very sleepy and lazy, so that the stomach may 
have the use of most of the blood. 

Neither is it wise to take severe exercise in the early 
morning before breakfast, for the body is not so strong as it 
is after it has had food. Still, one may take a walk or a bicy- 
cle ride if one has taken a little something to eat first. Many 
people, however, feel exhausted all day if they exercise before 
breakfast. In such cases another hour is better. 



72 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENl. 

For the student the afternoon hours are the best, for his 
brain is tired with a long morning's attention. It is a good 
plan while studying to break the time ; for instance, after 
studying for an hour to get up and take a brisk run, and 
then come back to work. 

It is always wise to exercise after bathing, whether it be 
after the daily sponge bath, a warm bath or open-air bathing, 
for the water chills the skin and drives the blood away, and 
exercise brings it back and makes the skin glow. 

One needs more exercise in winter than in summer. The 
inhabitants of very hot countries generally sleep in the mid- 
dle of the day, while in cold countries they are far more 
active and energetic, because they feel the need of keeping 
their blood in constant circulation. 

One should always stop exercising when the body begins 
to feel slightly tired, for exhausted muscles do not react 
quickly. 

Different Kinds of Exercise.— The story is told of 
a man who was not feeling well and who consulted a phy- 
sician. ''Exercise is what you need," was the prescription. 
"But, doctor," began the man. 

*'No excuses," said the doctor; ''a man cannot live with- 
out exercise." 

" But, doctor, my business " 

"Never mind your business," said the doctor. "Do as I 
tell you. Go out into the open air and walk." 

"But, doctor," the man finally managed to get out, "I 
am a postman." 

Everybody needs to exercise the parts of his body that 
are not employed in his daily work. A man who walks all 
day would find rest by exercising his brain in reading, or by 
using his hands, as, for instance, playing an instrument or 
carving wood. 

The woman who sews, or carries children, or runs a sew- 
ing machine is rested by a walk ; though the ideal exercise 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 73 

for her, if it were possible, is rowing, as it strengthens the 
chest and throws the shoulders back. 

The man who sits all day at a desk finds relief in walk- 
ing, swimming, riding a wheel or working in a gymnasium. 

Many brain- workers take exercise by doing something 
with their hands, as a little carpentering or gardening ; and 
the well-known story is told of England's great statesman, 
Gladstone, that he felled oaks for his morning's exercise. 

The kind of exercise that each one can take depends 
largely on his circumstances and surroundings, but all phy- 
sicians agree that out-door exercise is the best, and that exer- 
cise which takes the form of pleasure is better than that 
which is a duty. Therefore, every game is to be recom- 
mended : foot-ball, base-ball, croquet, tennis, boxing, fencing, 
golf, jumping rope, and all running games, as well as all such 
sports as horse-back riding, rowing, swimming, dancing, and 
bicycling. But in every one of them it must be remembered 
that there is danger if it is carried to the point where rest 
does not come quickly after fatigue, for that shows that the 
muscles have passed their limit of endurance. 

Gymnasium Exercise . — An hour several times a week 
spent in a gymnasium, under the direction of an instructor, 
will develop the muscles more evenly than any other form of 
exercise. Anyone can add, by a few weeks' practice, an inch 
to the biceps and many cubic inches to the lung capacity. 

But if there is no gymnasium connected with the school, 
there should be some form of calisthenic exercise taken in 
the ^school-room. It is there that the muscles grow cramped 
and the life and vim are taken out of the children. Such exer- 
cise is more stimulating and restful if accompanied by music, 
as the close attention required for very precise exercises does 
not refresh the body. Some of the simple, well-established 
exercises, such as any teacher can direct, will, if used for five 
or ten minutes twice a day, do much toward relieving the 
tired feeling that school-children get, and developing a 



74 AIS-ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEl^E. 



symmetrical figure. Exercises for the head and shoulders 
correct the tendency to stoop, exercises with the arms expand 
the chest, exercises for the spinal column keep the spinal 
column straight, and exercises for the feet keep the hips 
even. In addition to this, constant attention by the teacher 
to sitting straight and standing firmlj^ on both feet will make 
the figure erect and graceful. 

Home Exercise. — Simple apparatus can be arranged 
at home with little expense which, if regularly used, is a great 
help toward muscular development and general health. Dumb- 
bells or Indian clubs, if used for ten minutes, will put one all 
in a glow. Pulley apjoaratus is excellent ; but even without 
any apparatus one can find some way to exercise. The tran- 
som of a door serves as a bar to pull one's self up by. A 
chair laid on the floor may be used as a support to raise and 
lower the body by the arms for a chest exercise. 

The exercise of lying flat on the floor or bed with tha 
arms folded and of raising one's self to a sitting posture, or 
standing with the arms raised and bowing without bending 
the knees until the hands touch the floor ; or of jumping and 
crossing the feet, at the same time touching the hands over 
the head ; all these make a good substitute for gymnasium 
w^ork. 

Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco upon Athletes.— 

The practical testimony of all athletes is against the use of 
alcohol and tobacco in any form, for they claim that it, in a 
large measure, counteracts the benefits that are to be derived 
from the exercise. 

In the great boat races between Oxford and Cambridge 
in England, and between Harvard and Columbia and other 
universities in this country, the men who row are required to 
go into training for a certain number of months beforehand. 
The great foot-ball teams of the country are also required to 
" train " before games. lu order to get their muscles into 
the strongest and mo^t elastic condition they are obliged to 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. , 75 

live an ideally healthy life. They must exercise regularly, go 
early to bed and sleep a certain number of hours. They must 
eat only the most digestible and healthful food, no pastry or 
confectionery, and, above all, they must not touch alcohol or to- 
bacco in any form whatsoever. When the day of the game or 
the race comes they have cool, steady nerves, muscles like 
iron,* and well-developed bodies in which there is not an ounce 
of superfluous fat. 

"Any man," says Dr. Martin, in speaking of college ath- 
letics, " who, after election as a member of his college crew, 
should be found secretly drinking beer or smoking, would be 
hissed out of college." 

Hanlon, the famous oarsman, says : "In my opinion, the 
best physical performance can be secured only through abso- 
lute abstinence from alcohol and tobacco. This is my rule, 
and I find that after three years' constant work at the oar, 
during which I have rowed many notable match races, that I 
am better able to contend than when I commenced. In fact, 
I believe that the use of liquors and tobacco has a very serious 
effect upon the system oi the athlete." 

SYNOPSIS. 

The value of physical exercise. 

Games of different nations : English. 

Canadian . 
American. 
Grecian. 
Contrast between the ideas of the ancient Greeks and the 
monks of the Middle Ages concerning the care of the body. 
Ideal combination, body and mind, play and study. 
Effect of exercise on muscles : Eeplace worn- out cells. 

To increase the size of muscle. 
Lack of exercise : Through sickness, great weakness. 

Through broken limb, thin and shrunken. 
Too much exercise : Fatigue. 

Through daily occupation. 



76 AIS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Effect of exercise on the skin : 

Feeling of heat. 
Perspiration. 

Removal of waste matter, making it clear. 
Effect of exercise on the lungs : 

Breaths come faster, breaths are deeper. 
Increases capacity, beneficial exercises. 
Effect of exercise on the heart : 

Rapid beating. 
Good circulation. 
Less heat during sleep. 
Danger of overtaxing heart. 
Effect of exercise on the appetite : By carrying off impurities 
faster, cells demand more blood, which demands more food 
from stomach. 
Appetite a sign of health. 
When to exercise : Not after eating. 

Not before breakfast. 
Afternoon for students. 
After bathing. 
More in winter. 
Stop when tired. 
Different kinds of exercise : According to occupation. 

Men who walk . 
Desk workers. 
Brain workers. 

Women in various occupations. 
Out-door sports and games the best. 
Gymnasium exercise : Advantage for symmetrical development. 

School exercise. 
Home exercise : With apparatus. 
Without it. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Of what value is physical exercise ? 2. What is the natural 
way for children to take exercise ? 3. Mention the ball-games of 
different nations and tell how they develop the body. 4. Describe 
the Olympic games of the Greeks. 5. How do young men of to-day 



PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 77 

compare with the ancient Greeks? 6. How did the Greeks treat 
their bodies? 7. How did the monks of the Middle Ages treat 
their bodies? 8. What is the sensible course between these two 
methods ? 9. Why are girls seldom as strong as boys ? 10. What 
is the advantage of the bicycle for women? 11. What is the effect 
of exercise on the cells of the muscles ? 12. Explain how exercise 
makes a muscle grow. 13. How does staying in bed affect the mus- 
cles of a strong man ? 14. What is the effect of not using a limb ? 
15. Give an example. 16. Describe how the lack of bodily exercise 
affects a person's walk and figure. 17. What effect do military 
drill and calisthenic exercise have on the figure? 18. Can a muscle 
get too much exercise ? 19. How ? 20. What is the sign that a 
muscle has been overworked ? 21. What is the normal temperature 
of the body ? 22. Why does the skin feel hot after exercise ? 23. 
How does perspiration cool the skin? 24. Why does exercise 
make the skin fresh and clear? 25. What effect does exercise have 
on the breathing ? 26. What benefit is there in long deep breaths ? 
27. How can you test the lung capacity ? 28. What danger is there 
in a narrow chest ? 29. How can one increase the capacity of the 
lungs ? 30. How do corsets affect the lungs ? 31. How does exer- 
cise affect the heart ? 32. What is meant by a good circulation ? 
33. What are the signs of it ? 84. What effect does the heart have 
on the heat of the body ? 35. Why is a little exercise good in the 
morning? 36. What bad effects do too much exercise have on the 
heart ? 37. How may a boy injure his heart ? 38. Explain how ex- 
ercise acts as a tonic. 39. Why does one have such a keen appetite 
after exercising ? 40. Why is a good appetite a sign of health ? 41. 
Why is it not wise to exercise after a hearty meal ? 42. How does 
Nature provide for a rest for the stomach ? 43. Why is it not so 
wise to exercise before breakfast ? 44. What is the testimony of 
athletes concerning the use of tobacco and alcohol? 45. What is 
reqmred of all foot-ballplayers and college crews? 46. What are 
the men required to do when they are training ? 47. What effect 
does the training have on their bodies ? 48. How would students 
regard anyone who broke the rules while training ? 49. What is 
Hanlon's testimony against the use of tobacco and alcohol ? 



CHAPTEK VI. 
FOOD AND DKINK 

In a mountain lake, though the water is constantly flow- 
ing out at one end, the lake does not disappear, because there 
is always more water flowing in at the other end, or bubbling 
up beneath it in springs. It may be a little higher after a 
melting snow or a heavy rain, or a little lower in a dry season, 
but it remains at about the same level, and yet the drops of 
water in it are never twice the same. 

This is true of our bodies, which are made up of an infin- 
ite number of separate cells. The body sometimes is a little 
thinner, sometimes a little fatter, but it looks the same. Even 
after twenty years one does not find a friend very much 
changed. And yet the body is constantly changing. Like 
the lake, there is always w^aste matter being given oft^ and al- 
ways new food material being taken in. If the inlet of a lake 
were stopped it would take only a short time for all the water 
to drain off, leaving only a muddy marsh. If the food and 
drink that go into our bodies were stopped it would take 
only four or five days before life would stop, though if water 
alone were given the body could live for several Aveeks, but it 
would be very feeble. 

The food does not go directly in the form of milk or 
bread to build up each cell, but it is changed into blood which 
circulates in every part. From it each cell takes what it 
needs, lime for the bone cells, iron for the blood -cells, and 
digested sugar and starches for the fat-cells. At the same 
time all the useless material of old, dead cells is cast into the 
blood and gotten rid of, by being passed off by means of the 



FOOD AND DRINK. 79 

skin in perspiration, or the lungs in the form of breath ; or 
by means of the kidneys or intestines. 

Every day, if we are in good health, we pass away on an 
average about three pints of waste material from the kidneys 
or intestines ; a little more than half a pint from the intes- 
tines ; about one and two-third pints from the skin in the form 
of perspiration, which we do not always notice, and a little 
over two pints in the moisture of the breath. In all nearly 
four quarts, of which a very large proportion is water. 

In order to keep the inlet equal to the outlet, there 
should be more than four quarts of food and water taken into 
the body each day. Children have less waste than older peo- 
ple, although they generally eat more, for they add more food 
material to their cells to make their bones, and muscles, and 
other parts grow. After a person reaches sixteen or eighteen 
years of age, growth in height usually stops, though growth 
in weight and size continues until the age of twenty-five, and 
sometimes much longer. But a grown person who is well 
generally gains or loses but a few pounds in many years. If 
he eats or drinks more than he needs to make up for the 
waste of his body, the surplus as a rule takes the form of fat. 

Food is anything that nourishes us and helps to build 
up the cells of the body. Strictly sp:aking, air is food, for it 
is essential to life, and the Oxygen which is in it forms sixty- 
two and a half per cent, of our bodies, but we do not get it 
directly from the air, but in a roundabout way. What we 
generally mean by food is the water, the meat, the fruit, and 
vegetables, etc., that we eat. These, however, are only the 
forms in which the food appears, for the real food is the four 
chief elements. Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Carbon, 
which, with some of the minerals, make up everything we eat. 
We never see these elem*ents in the air or in food, because 
they are rarely found free, but they are always combined to 
form some familiar article of food or drink. Chemists tell us 
that every drop of water may be separated into Oxygen and 



80 Al^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Hydrogen, and as water forms a large proportion of all fruits 
and vegetables, as well as milk, we eat considerable Hydrogen 
and Oxygen in such foods. The starch which forms so large 
a part of all flour and grain foods can be separated into Car- 
bon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen, hence these foods are called Car- 
bohydrates. Meat has Nitrogen as well as other elements. 

It would seem a very easy way to live if we could get 
these four elements with some minerals directly from the 
air and water. It would save growing vegetables, slaughter- 
ing animals, and much cooking, but the plants are the only 
living things that are so constructed that they can take food 
in this raw or crude form. The roots suck in minerals and 
Nitroo'en in the form of salts which are dissolved in water. 
By means of their leaves, spread out in the sunlight, they can 
take just the right proportion of Carbon and Oxygen to unite 
with the Hydrogen and Oxygen of the water in their sap, and 
turn them into starch. 

Much of this vegetable food we cannot eat unless it is 
turned into other forms of foods by animals. Our stomachs 
cannot digest hay, but a cow's can, while we eat the beef and 
milk that are made out of the digested hay. Grass would 
make us sick, but a sheep can turn it into excellent mutton. 
We could not digest hard kernels of corn or grains of wheat, 
but we find much nourishment in the chickens fed on such 
a diet. Thus all foods come originally from the air and water 
and soil, but are worked over by plants and animals into the 
form of vegetables and meats. 

Different Kinds of Foods. — All foods, whatever their 
form, may be classified in four groups according to the rela- 
tive proportion of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Carbon 
or other elements that each contain. 

These are : 1. Proteids. 

2. Starches and Sugars. 

3. Fats and Oils. 

4. Mineral Foods, water, salt, etc. 




FOOD AKD DRIISTK. 81 

Proteids. — A large part of the cells of the body are 
made up of living protoplasm. The proteids are the class of 
food that nourishes the protoplasm. They are the foods in 
which Nitrogen is found. They are found in all meats, in 
fish, oysters, eggs, milk, and in many cereals. Peas and beans 
have almost as much proteid material as beef. These foods 
build, up the muscles as fast as they are worn down ; they 
make the blood red ; they give strength to the body ; and 
without a certain proportion of this class of food it cannot 
live. 

Milk- — Milk is the first food that a baby can take. It 
has all the different kinds of food-stuffs in about the following 
proportions: ,^:m^m^. 

Per cent. .||i^^^^^ 

Proteid , 4 

Fat (cream) 4^ 

Sugar (no starch) 5 P^JipP^*V9^^. 

Mineral matter i ''^^©l^^^l^^fea^ 

Water 86 "^^'^^ir^' 

Fig. 3a— a Drop of 

It takes about four quarts of milk a day to Sco^e? shtVng ?^e 
feed a grown man. In sickness people often Fat-giobuies (Cream). 
live on milk for weeks. It is very easily digested and is 
nearly all converted into blood, there being very little waste. 
For this reason, in health, one needs to eat bread or some 
starchy food with the milk to give bulk to the waste matter. 

Milk sours easily ; that is to say, bacteria grow in it rap- 
idly if the temperature is warm, and cause it to ferment. It 
is then very unfit for food, and in this condition will make a 
baby very sick with summer complaint. In hot weather the 
milk should always be heated until it steams (not boils) be- 
fore it is given to an infant. The heat kills the bacteria. 

Meat. — Tender meat is made up almost wholly of mus- 
cle. It is the connective-tissue and fibres of older animals 
that make it tough. Beef has twenty per cent, proteid mat- 
ter, and nearly eighty per cent, water. Very little of this 



82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

proteid matter is wasted ; but about one-fifth of the proteid 
matter in peas and beans go to waste. Meat decays easily, 
for bacteria attack it readily. Butchers hang meat for several 
weeks in an ice-room to keep it fresh while it is growing 
tender. Meat in the country is very apt to be tough because 
it is eaten so soon after it is killed. Soups made of the bone 
and meat are very nourishing, but beef-tea contains hardly 
any of the proteid matter of the beef ; it consists chiefly of 
the salts or mineral portion, which is very slight, but which 
nevertheless serve as a stimulant, and takes the place of more 
solid nourishment in sickness. Smoked and dried and salted 
meats will keep a long time, but the fibres are toughened and 
hardened, and the gastric juice cannot digest them so easily. 

Fats and Oils. — The fats are more completely absorbed 
in our system than any other kind of food, even meat. They 
are of use in keeping the body warm. The colder the weather 
the more we like fat foods, such as sausages, pork, and suet 
puddings. Esquimaux children suck blubber, or whale-fat, 
as our children would candy, because their bodies crave it in 
their very cold climates. Some animals, like the bear and 
badger, that sleep all winter, crawl into their holes very fat, 
and come out very thin. The fat that is stored up in their 
bodies in some way is reabsorbed by the tissues and keeps 
them from needing food. If we eat plenty of fat meat, cream, 
butter, and food with suet, lard, or olive oil in it, there will be 
stored up in our bodies a reserve supply of fat that will be of 
service to us in time of sickness. People who have any wast- 
ing disease like consumption, or little children who are very 
thin, take cod-liver oil, because it is an easily digested fat and 
it quickly makes their bodies warm and healthy. 

Starches and Sugars.— It is important to understand 
thoroughly what starchy food is. You may have seen starch 
used for stiffening linen. When used in this way, it is first 
mixed with water and then placed on the fire, which causes 
it to swell up and become changed into a paste. Raw starch 



FOOD AIS'D DRINK. 



83 



is not suitable for food for man ; it must first be made digest- 
ible by boiling. All starchy food must first be boiled before 
it can be used as food. The cow and ox can eat hay and oats 
and digest them ; but man could not think of taking oatmeal 
raw, but only after it had been boiled. The same applies to 
rice, farina, barley, and all other farinaceous food. There is 
no starch in fleshy food and none in animals ; it occurs only 
in plants. 

If you scrape the inside of a potato with a wet knife, you 




FiO. 34, — starch Granules (from Potato) as Seen under the Microscope, 



will get a cloudy, white fluid. Put a drop of this under a 
microscope and you will see a number of small things that* 
look like oyster-shells. They are grains of starch. They can 
not -.be digested by our stomachs until they are burst apart by 
being boiled or fermented. Then the saliva of the mouth and 
other juices of the intestinal tract turn them into sugar. The 
sugar of farinaceous or starchy food gives heat and energy 
to the body and makes healthy fat. 

Bread is the staff of life in this country. But white bread 
is not so nourishing as the brown bread made out of the 
whole wheat flour. For in white bread nearly all the proteid 



84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 

matter is removed with the husks, leaving nothing but starch ; 
but in brown bread the proteid part, or the gluten, is ground 
up with the flour. 

Vegetables and fruits contain some starch and sugars, 
but are chiefly water and cellular tissue. All grains are rich 
in starch, especially wheat, oats, and rice. But a great pro- 
portion of such diet goes to waste. This is a point in its 
favor instead of against it, for the stomach and intestines 
need bulk to work with, and the pulp of fruit and the undi- 
gested parts of corn and oatmeal and bread, together with 
the water we drink, push out and wash away all the worn-out 
parts of the tissues that the body wants to get rid of. 

Mineral Food. — The commonest mineral food besides 
water is salt. All meat and bread and vegetables have a little 
of it naturally. We, ourselves, have each about half a pound 
in our bodies, but we are constantly losing some in perspira- 
tion ; the supply, however, does not seem to give out, for no 
matter how many tears we shed, the last are always as salty 
as the first. Too much salty food produces a disease which 
afl'ects soldiers and sailors, who cannot get fresh meat or vege- 
tables. One could not live long without any salt, and because 
it is so necessary we always add a little to our food in cooking. 

Other minerals occur in our food without our being 
aware of their presence. Some are dissolved in water and 
others appear in vegetables, and a very small proportion is 
found in meat. Celery is rich in potash and iron, and potash 
is found in lettuce. Both are wholesome and good for the 
blood. The salts of lime occur in water and in the bones of 
animals. 

Water. — Our bodies are by weight about two-thirds 
water. The Egyptian mummies, even when they are the bod- 
ies of large men, are very light, because all the water has been 
dried out of them. About eight-tenths of all our food is 
water, either in the form of drinks, or in fruits and vegetables 
and meats. 



FOOD AIS^D DRINK. 



85 



Eain-water is pure and soft — that is, there are no minerals 
in it — but as it soaks through the earth it dissolves iron, salt, 
lime, sulphur, and various other minerals. When the water 
contains lime it is called hard, and is not good for washing, 
because it makes a scum, instead of a lather, with soap. It is, 
however, good to drink. When it contains much iron or sul- 
phur,^ it is thought to be as good as medicine, and thousands 




Fig. 85.— a Section of a Dwelling:, and its Accompaniments, as is often Found in the 
Country. The shading extending from the stable to the layer of rock at the bottom of the 
well, shows the course of the poisonous material from the stable, with its manure-heap and 
pig-pen, to the well. 



of people go every year to Saratoga and White Sulphur 
Springs to drink the mineral waters. 

Impure water is often a cause of disease, and the Boards 
of Health of large cities take the greatest care that the lakes 
from which the city's drinking-water is drawn shall be per- 
fectly pure. No stables or farms or cess-pools are allowed 
anywhere near the margins of such lakes, and no one is al- 
lowed to bathe in the waters. Bacteria live easily in water 
where there is any animal or vegetable matter, and the pure 
rain-water sinking through the soil contaminated by animal 
refuse, drains the impurities down with it to the lake. 



86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEISTE. 

Typhoid fever is nearly always contracted by drinking 
contaminated water. "^ The germs of the disease live and 
multiply very rapidly in water, and will remain a long time. 
People have even been known to get the disease by drinking 
milk out of cans that had been washed in well-water infected 
by typhoid bacteria. In villages where there is no drainage 
the soil often becomes so soaked with the germs of disease 
that the drinking-water is all affected, and so many people are 
sick that there is said to be an epidemic. Clear water is not 
always pure. Water may be very impure and still be very clear 
and transparent. And again, water may look a little cloudy, 
and yet be perfectly innocent and healthy. What makes some 
water unhealthy and injurious are impurities taken from the 
soil ; in the country, w^here the water from wells is used, such 
impurities are often present. In the country very often no 
other water can be obtained except that from the well, and for 
the sake of convenience, the well is built near the house, stable, 
and other outbuildings, where it is very apt to be poisoned. 
Fig. 35 illustrates very nicely the manner in which the well- 
water may become poisoned. It is a good example of what 
occurs constantly in many places in the country where well- 
water is used without proper precautions having been taken to 
prevent poisoning. 

An examination of the picture on p. 85 shows the follow- 
ing : To the right is the dwelling-house, with the outhouse 
near by ; to the left is the stable, with its manure-heap and 
pig-pen ; between these two is the well. The surface of the 
ground is fairly level, and is sandy, and beneath this is gravel. 
The rain soaks into the porous ground, and in doing so dis- 
solves poisonous matters from the manure-heap and the pig- 
pen, and after it has soaked into the ground it remains there, 
since there is a layer of rock below which will not allow the 
water to pass. This poisoned water collects here, and then 

^ Recent experiences have shown that typhoid-fever germs are also carried 
by flies. 



FOOD AND DRINK. 87 

gradually enters tlie lower part of the well Wlien water is 
drawn from the well it will be easily understood that it is 
partly the same water which has passed over and through the 
manure-heap and the dirt of the pig-pen before passing into 
the ground. The shading extending, on the figure, from the 
stablQ to the bottom of the well, shows the course which this 
poisoned water takes. Such water often causes typhoid fever 
and other diseases. 

It has often happened that a great many persons became 
sick in a village at the same time. When a great many per- 
sons become sick at the same time, and have the same disease, 
an epidemic is said to exist. Many epidemics have been 
found to have been produced by the drinking of poisoned 
well-water. 

The water of a jt^i^re river should be preferred to that of 
a well. But sometimes we have no choice and must drink 
well-water. In this case we should see that the well is thirty 
feet or more from any inhabited building, and that no refuse 
or slops of any kind are allowed to soak into the ground. 
Such refuse should be kept in water-tight barrels and carted 
off regularly. If we are in doubt about whether the water is 
good or not, we may boil it thoroughly ; this destroys the poi- 
son, and then we are safe in drinking it. Varieties of filters 
are made which are of value in freeing water from danger- 
ous impurities ; not all filters, however, accomplish this pur- 
pose. 

Water which has stood in leaden pipes all night dis- 
solves a little of the lead ; hence when we use the water in the 
morning, we should allow it to run a few minutes. 

Advantages of a Mixed Diet. — Scientific men tell us 
that a race that eats a great variety of food has more brain- 
power and more endurance than a race that eats only a few 
kinds. Some races and people eat vegetables only and are 
called Vegetarians, but they have to eat eggs and butter and 
milk, which are animal products, to give them proteids to 



88 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

build up the protoplasm of their bodies. Such people are 
almost invariably better and stronger if they add meat to 
their diet. 

Milk is the one food which contains all the different ele- 
ments so combined as to make a perfect food in itself ; but ex- 
perience has taught us what foods to eat together so that we 
can get the variety that the body needs in one dish or in one 
meal. 

To potatoes (starch), we add butter (fat) and salt (min- 
eral), and eat them with meat (proteid) ; then we take some- 
thing sweet (sugar) for dessert. To bread (starch) we add 
butter (fat). With crackers, and maccaroni (starch) we eat 
cheese (proteid). With eggs (proteid) we eat toast (starch) 
and butter (fat). 

The character of man's teeth and the length of his intes- 
tines prove that man was not intended to live on a vegetable 
diet alone. His canine teeth are shaped somewhat like those 
of the carnivora or flesh-eating animals, and the intestines 
are neither so long as those of the herbivora or vegetable- 
eating animals, nor so short as those of the flesh-eating ani- 
mals. 

The carnivora, or animals that live on flesh alone, such 
as the lion, the cat and dog, have long, sharp-pointed teeth to 
tear their food, and short intestines. The herbivora, or ani- 
mals that eat grass and herbs, such as the cow and sheep, 
have no canine teeth, and have very long intestines. Man has 
canine teeth which are not so long as those in the carnivora, 
and the length of his intestines is about half way between 
those of the carnivora and herbivora ; therefore, he is es- 
pecially fitted to eat a mixed diet. 

Cooking. — Civilized men cook nearly all their food, and 
the more highly they are civilized the better do they make it 
taste. Oysters, milk, eggs, and some fruits and vegetables 
are the only kinds of foods that we find palatable when 
eaten raw. 



FOOD AIS^B BEIKK. 89 

The value of cooking meat is that the fibres are softened 
and it is made more tender and, therefore, easier to chew and 
digest. Broiling or roasting is the best and most palatable 
way of cooking meat, for all the juices are then retained. 
Boiling is adapted to all grains and vegetables that contain 
starch, for it softens them and bursts open the starch-grains, 
which cannot be digested raw, and makes it easy for the 
juices of the intestines to take hold of them. 

Cooking combines different food-stuffs, as eggs, flour, 
milk, and sugar in cake ; rice, milk, and raisins in pudding. 
It brings out with seasonings the best taste in foods, so that 
the appetite is stimulated and the saliva flows freely and aids 
digestion. Cooking kills all germs in food. It also tends to 
preserve meats, fruits, and vegetables which would not other- 
wise keep fresh. 

BEVERAGES. 

Coffee. — Most of the coffee used in this country comes 
from the West and East Indies, Arabia, and South America. 
The part of the plant used is the berry. The berries are 
dried and roasted, thus developing the aroma. The roasted 
coffee " beans " are ground ; then boiling water is poured 
upon them and the whole mixture allowed to boil for a min- 
ute or two, making a decoction. This process extracts the 
caffein, coloring matter, flavor, and a very small quantity of 
nutritious matter. 

Some persons cannot drink coffee at all ; in such cases it 
has a peculiar and disagreeable effect and causes nervousness, 
trembling, headache, indigestion, palpitation of the heart, and 
wakefulness at night. 

Tea. — The tea-plant is cultivated principally in China, 
Japan, and the East Indies. To prepare tea, boiling water is 
poured upon a small quantity of tea-leaves, forming an infu- 
sion ; it must not be boiled, for this drives off the agreeable 
flavor with the steam, and dissolves too much of a bitter and 



90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AISTD HYGIENE. 

astringent agent in the water, which is called tannin. The 
active principle of tea is identical with that of coffee. Many 
people so depend on the reviving effect of tea that they can- 
not get through the day without a cup. They are then vic- 
tims of a habit which is like the alcohol habit, only not nearly 
so injurious. Children who drink tea and coffee become sal- 
low in complexion, and nervous. The bad effects of tea are 
more marked than coffee. It leaves a sense of depression 
after the refreshing stimulus has worn off, and the tannin 
gradually acts upon the walls of the intestines so that they 
do not secrete properly, thus causing chronic constipation. 
Few people will believe that their headaches, or difficulties 
with the digestion, are due to tea-drinking, for they argue 
that they are no better on the days that they do not drink it 
than when they take it ; but such troubles are the result of 
man^^ years' habit, and the system will not recover its tone 
sometimes under months. It is therefore much better for 
young people not to form the habit of drinking either tea or 
coffee, for people who dispense with its use altogether are 
almost invariably less nervous and have better digestions 
than those who drink these beverages every day. 

There are many kinds of tea, and many mixtures are 
made to conform to different tastes. Green tea is sometimes 
used ; this variety is apt to be injurious, especially in the pro- 
duction of nervous symptoms. 

Cocoa and Chocolate. — The cocoa-tree is a native of 
tropical America. The seeds contain a principle identical 
with that found in coffee and tea ; in addition they are very 
rich in nutriment, consisting of about one-half vegetable fat. 
Cocoa is prepared like coffee by making a decoction of the 
ground seeds. Chocolate is cocoa which has been ground up 
with sugar and certain flavoring agents. Both cocoa and 
chocolate are desirable drinks ; they are more nutritious 
than either tea or coffee, and less liable to cause undesirable 
effects. For these reasons they should receive preference 



FOOD AITD DRINK. 91 

over tea and coffee as beverages for children, though constipa- 
tion is sometimes due to chocolate drinking. 

Kola. — Of late years there has been imported from 
Africa a nut called the kola-nut. From it is made a drink 
called kola. It contains the same active principle — caffein, 
that is found in tea, coffee, and cocoa, and in about the same 
proportion as in coffee. When taken alone it makes a poor 
substitute for coffee, and when combined, as it usually is, with 
weak wine, it has a bad effect on the human system. 

Coca-leaves and Cocaine. — Another very harmful 
drink which has obtained use of late years is made from the 
leaf of the coca-plant, a small, bushy shrub, found and culti- 
vated in certain parts of South America. This must not be 
confounded with cocoa, the bean from which chocolate is 
made. The coca-leaf was first heard of through travellers in 
South America, who gave very graphic accounts of the mar- 
vellous powers of this agent in enabling the natives to en- 
dure physical hardships, not only sustaining their strength 
and giving them powers of endurance, but postponing the 
feeling of hunger. 

These accounts were great exaggerations, since no such 
wonderful effects follow the use of the leaves as observed in 
this country. But as there is a very serious objection to the 
use of coca preparations, and since other harmless remedies 
will accomplish similar results, preparations of coca-leaves 
are objectionable. 

Cocaine. — The effects of the coca-leaves are due to the 
existence of an active principle known as cocaine ; this is ob- 
tained in small white crystals. When taken internally, cocaine 
acts as the coca-leaves from which it is extracted. But when 
applied externally cocaine has a wonderful effect upon tissues 
with which it comes in contact : it benumbs the small nerves 
which carry the sensations of feeling and of pain ; and in this 
way the part to which it is applied loses all sensation. 

The Cocaine Habit. — But the use of cocaine is at- 



92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AISTD HYGIENE. 

tended with very serious, and even fatal, results. Quite a 
number of persons have acquired the habit of taking cocaine, 
and have become slaves to it. In some of these cases the 
cocaine was given for the cure of the alcohol and the mor- 
phine habit ; usually it has failed to cure these habits, and 
the unfortunate victims have simply had the cocaine habit 
added to the others. As a rule the drug is originally taken to 
relieve exhaustion and to exhilarate ; an appetite for cocaine 
is then established, and larger and larger doses are required 
to satisfy it. The habit becomes firmly attached and produces 
disastrous results upon mind and body. 

Similar results may follow the habitual use of '' wine of 
coca," a preparation in which the active parts of the coca- 
leaves are dissolved in wine. The careless and frequent in- 
dulgence in this intoxicant not only tends to produce the coca 
habit, but favors the alcohol habit as well. The victim of the 
coca habit is as badly off as the drunkard. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Uses of Food : 

Indirect method of getting into body. 
Amount of water in food and body. 
Elementary composition of foods. 

1. Hydrogen. 

2. Carbon. 

3. Oxygen. 

4. Nitrogen and minerals. 
Kinds of foods : 

1. Proteids. 

2. Carbohydrates. 

3. Fats and oils. 

4. Minerals. 
Preteids : 

Milk, meat, eggs, etc. 
Fats and oils : 

Butter, olive-oil, etc. 



FOOD AND DRINK. 98 

Carbohydrates : 

Starches and sugars. 
Mineral foods : 

Salt, phosphates, iron, lime. 
Water : 

Should be pure. 

Water that looks clear not always pure. 
* Dangers of typhoid fever in water. 

Contaminated soil. 
'Advantages of mixed diet. 
The reasons why man uses a mixed diet : 

Teeth of both kinds, to tear meat and chew vegetables. 

Length of intestinal canal to digest mixed diet. 
Cooking. 
Beverages : 

Coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, kola, coca, cocaine and wines of 
coca. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Why must we take food and drink ? 2. What must happen to 
the food before it can be changed into our tissues ? 3. Describe the 
food upon which plants live. 4. Do all animals have the same kind 
of food? 5. What difference is there between the kind of food 
which the cow takes and that which the dog eats? 6. What is 
meant by a carnivorous animal ? 7. What is meant by an herbivorous 
animal ? 8. To which class does man belong ? 9. What is meant by 
fleshy food ? 10. What is meant by vegetable food ? 11. What is 
farinaceous food? 12. What is starch ? 13. Do we find starch in 
animals ? 14. Why is it necessary to eat green vegetables ? 15. Do 
we need fat in our food? 16. Can man exist on any one form of 
food alone ? 17. Why do we naturally eat butter with our bread ? 
18. How is bread prepared ? 19. Why is yeast added ? 20. Could 
we exist on milk alone? 21 Why? 22. What part of the milk 
does the cream represent ? 23. What is butter ? 24. What is 
cheese ? 25 . What can you say about eggs as food ? 26. Could 
we eat the same kind of food every day ? 27. What follows when 
we eat improper food ? 28. Why is most of our food cooked ? 29. 
Name some of the different plans of cooking food. 30. What makes 



94 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A^B HYGIEISTE. 

our drinking-water unhealthy ? 31. Explain how well-water is often 
poisoned. 32. How can you prevent poisoning of well-water? 33. 
Name the various kinds of foods and in what respects they differ. 
34. What are the advantages of a mixed diet ? 35. Why cannot the 
human body live on vegetables like grass as the cow does? 36. 
What are the dangers of coffee and tea drinking? 37. What are 
the great dangers of coca preparations ? 



CHAPTEE VII. 

ALCOHOLIC DEINKS. 

Besides tea and coffee and cocoa, there is a class of bever- 
ages in common use whose origin and nature have not been 
generally understood, and whose effect upon the health, char- 
acter, and attainments of mankind have been very deplorable. 
These are the alcoholic drinks, the most common of which 
are beer, wine, and cider, whiskey, gin, rum, and brandy. 

Alcoholic drinks are produced from fruits and grains by 
a process of fermentation. It is important to understand 
what fermentation is in order to see how fruits and grains 
which are good for food can be made to yield drinks that con- 
tain poison instead of food. 

Fermentation.— Men have known for thousands of 
years that if they let a sweet, watery fluid stand in warm 
air for a certain length of time it would ferment and form 
alcohol. It is only within the last few years that we have 
found, by means of the microscope, the cause of this change. 

Clinging to the stems and surfaces of the fruit from 
which the juice is pressed out to make wine, are the germs of 
various minute forms of life. Among them are germs that 
produce different kinds of molds and those that produce alco- 
holic fermentation. These last are called ferment germs. 

When fruits are crushed and their juices pressed out to 
make wine, some of the ferment germs on their surfaces are 
washed into the juice and carried with it into the vats. Here 
the ferments begin to grow and increase rapidly in numbers, 
taking for their nourishment the oxygen that is contained in 



96 AIS-ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

the sugar of the juice. This breaks up the sugar and causes 
two new substances to form in its place — carbonic acid gas, 
which rises to the top in tiny bubbles, and alcohol, a poison, 
which remains in the liquid. It is the alcohol produced in a 
sweet liquid by fermentation that changes a healthful fruit 
juice to a dangerous drink. 

Alcohol. — Alcohol is a poison which is capable of injur- 
ing all the tissues and organs of the body with which it comes 
in contact, and when taken in sufficient quantity, of causing 
death. When we say that a man is intoxicated, we mean that 
he is poisoned ; the word " intoxicated '' comes from a Latin 
word, '* toxic, ^' which means poison. 

The Alcoholic Appetite. — Aside from being a poison, 
alcohol has the dangerous power of causing a diseased crav- 
ing for more, which has been called the alcoholic appetite, or 
alcoholic thirst. This craving is very different from a normal 
or healthy appetite. A healthy appetite is satisfied with food 
and natural drinks. After a person has eaten enough of the 
right kind to fill his stomach comfortably, he does not care to 
eat any more. This is not the case with alcoholic drinks, for 
they have the power of making the drinker crave more and 
more, even when he knows they are doing him injury ; and 
when he has gotten past the stage where he knows what he is 
doing, nothing seems to satisfy him. 

Fermentation can be Prevented. — When a house- 
wife boils the juice of currants or grapes, with an equal 
amount of sugar, she gets a thick, syrupy mass, which when 
cooled forms a solid jelly. This she can set away for months 
without covering it, and it will not spoil. Sometimes a little 
green mold will form on top of it, but because the jelly is solid 
and very sweet, the germs of mold and fermentation cannot 
grow through it. When she puts up canned fruit she adds 
only a little sugar, boils the fruit to kill the germs that are 
on the surface, and seals it while boiling hot in air-tight jars 
to prevent other germs from getting into it from the air. 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 



97 



Fermentation in Bread-making.— The yeast which 
the cook puts into bread-dough to make it rise contains many 
little ferment germs much like those that cause fermenta- 
tion in fruit-juices. In the flour of which bread is made 
there exists a certain amount of free sugar which, dissolved in 
the moist dough, is broken up into carbonic acid gas and alco- 
hol by the ferments of the yeast. The gas puffs up the dough 
and, makes the bread light. The alcohol escapes in the oven 





Fig. 73.— Yeast Cells, Showing Stages in Division of the same Cell. 

while the bread is baking, so that there is no alcohol in well- 
baked bread. 

''Cider. — Cider is apple-juice squeezed out by a press 
and allowed to ferment. Often all the old wormy apples and 
windfalls that are not good for anything else are used for 
cider. Sweet cider is supposed to contain no alcohol, but 
this is the case for only about six hours. The germs which 
were on the stems and surfaces of the apples, and were car- 
ried into the juice as it was pressed out, soon begin to grow. 
There is generally a little of the fermented juice left in the 



98 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

press from the day before containing additional ferments in 
an active state, which hastens the fermentation. In two or 
three days after being pressed out, if kept where it is mod- 
erately warm, cider has about two per cent, of alcohol in it, 
in a week about five per cent. ; and as each day passes the 
amount increases, and those who drink it, as it gradually 
grows harder, cultivate a liking for a greater and greater 
amount of alcohol, until at the end of three or four weeks 
they are taking a drink which may contain fully ten per cent, 
of this poison. 

The history of many a village in New England witnesses 
the truth of the following paragraph by Horace Greeley : 

''I estimate that a barrel of apples was grown in New 
Hampshire a century ago with less care and labor than are 
now required to produce a peck. There being no market for 
the fruit (seldom grafted), cider was very abundant and very 
cheap. I have known it in excess at $1.00 a barrel within the 
last fifty years. It was of course the common beverage for 
the last three months of the year, and with thrifty people for 
at least half the year, a century ago. The farmer returning 
from his daily toil ate his supper and sat down by his fireside 
to talk and drink through the evening. Mug after mug of 
cider was drawn, and everybody felt a sense of exhilara- 
tion. The boys who graduated from those firesides too often 
evinced, at an early age, an insatiable appetite for stimulants, 
an appetite created, but by no means satisfied, by cider ; and 
an appetite that very often consigned them to early and 
unhonored graves. I have known whole families to be 
burned out and the farm sacrificed by the fiery thirst, pal- 
pably generated by sucking and soaking around the family 
cider barrel." 

Wine- — Wines are made from the juice of grapes or 
some fruit that has a great deal of sweet juice. This is 
pressed out and allowed to ferment. There are always some 
little germs clinging to the skin of ripening grapes, but they 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 99 

cannot get at the juice unless the skin is broken. When the 
juice is pressed out of the grapes to make wine, the ferments 
are washed off into the juice and carried into the vat. There 
they go on growing and changing the sugar of the juice until 
enough alcohol is produced to give the wine the strength that 
the maker desires. When the alcohol reaches fourteen per 
cent, it kills the germs that made it, so that wine cannot have 
more than about that amount unless some is added to it. 

Champagne and Effervescent Wines are not fer- 
mented in the open air, but in closed bottles, so that the car- 
bonic acid gas produced by the fermentation is kept in with 
the alcohol and makes the wine sparkle and sting. 

Many housekeepers make home-made wines out of cur- 
rants, gooseberries, cherries, or blackberries. They often say 
with pride, "You needn't be afraid of this, I made it myself, 
and I did not put a drop of alcohol in it." This shows their 
ignorance of the fact that whenever fruit-juices are allowed 
to ferment their sugar will be wholly or in part changed to 
alcohol. Home-made wines often contain as much alcohol as 
the wines of commerce, and are then just as harmful. 

Light wines are those that contain a small per cent, of 
alcohol. People often argue that the use of these wines, 
especially in wine-making countries, prevents people from 
drinking more intoxicating beverages ; but others, who have 
seen for themselves the effects of these wines, say that in 
some wine-making districts, at the time of the vintage, every, 
body in the neighborhood — men, women, and even little chil- 
dren — are intoxicated. 

The editor of a California paper says : "Wine-making in 
Eldorado has paved the way for drunkenness and poverty," 
and another says : " Wine has become as cheap as milk, and 
as freely drunk, till many, once sober men, are growing habit- 
ually intoxicated. One leading man enumerated to us five of 
his acquaintances who, once noble men, are now drunkards 
through wine." 



100 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Wines are the fashionable drinks of society. Men who 
can afford to have wine-cellars with very costly wines, think 
nothing of drinking several hundred dollars worth with 
their friends at a single dinner. Each tries to offer the other 
something more costly. The person to whom it is offered 
feels that it would be an insult to refuse. Many times a boy, 
or young man, who has never taken any form of alcoholic 
drink, takes his first glass because he does not wish to seem 
rude. But during the last twenty-five years a careful study 
of the laws of health and a better appreciation of the deadly 
effects of all alcoholic drinks have led many people to give up 
the use of wine in entertaining. Some of the wives of the 
Presidents have never had it on the table of the White House, 
for they have wished to show to the nation how evil it is in 
its effect on health and morals. 

Malt Liquors. — Malt liquors include all kinds of beer, 
ale, porter, and stout. They contain from four to eight, and 
sometimes ten, per cent, of alcohol. 

They are made from grains ; beer is usually made from 
barley. Barley contains a great deal of starch, which is 
partly changed into sugar as soon as the grain begins to 
grow. Accordingly it is sprouted by moisture and heat, and 
then as soon as the little barley-plants begin to push out of 
their seed-coats, they are killed by being put in a hot oven. 
The grain is then called malt. It is crushed and mixed with 
hot water, which dissolves all the sugar out of the malted 
grain. Hops, which give the bitter taste to beer, are added, 
and then yeast, to make the liquid ferment. It is not bottled 
as in root beer, and when the carbonic acid gas rises to the 
top, the frothy scum is skimmed off, but the alcohol remains 
in. 

To make beer is a slow process, and one that takes great 
care, and if good barley is used it is expensive, and the saloon- 
keepers do not make a large profit on it ; therefore they buy 
a poor beer that is made of cheaj) rye or corn, and quassia, 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 101 

or other bitters, to give it the bitter taste instead of hops. 
This often has a dangerous chemical, saUcylic acid, added to it 
to keep it, so that in addition to containing the poison of 
alcohol, it has poisonous adulterations. 

People often say that beer is nourishing because it is 
made of good, wholesome grain, but we have seen that the 
nourishing part has been changed into alcohol. They also say 
that it is fattening ; so it is, but it makes unhealthful fat, 
which amounts to disease in such organs as the liver and the 
heart. It deposits an excess of fat all over the body, and 
^ives a person a coarse, bloated, or, as is sometimes said, 
a " beery " appearance. 

A glass or two of beer may not produce total intoxication 
as the same amount of whiskey would, but it will destroy the 
finer senses and judgment and make a man quarrelsome and 
vicious. It has a peculiarly debasing effect upon the human 
mind. Dr. G. Bunge, Professor in Basle University, Switzer- 
land, says on this subject : " Nothing gives us so full a glance 
into the selfishness of mankind as a careful consideration of 
their relation to the liquor question. What shall we say of a 
man who thinks to himself: 'Let millions every year of my 
fellow-men languish in hospitals and asylums ; let millions 
plunge themselves and their families in ruin, or be driven to 
despair or suicide, so long as I get my glass of beer every 
morning.' " 

Root Beer is a sweet liquid that is made to ferment by 
the addition of yeast. To sweetened water and a decoction of 
spicy herbs yeast is added, and the bottles, tightly corked, 
are set in a warm place. Soon the yeast begins to break up 
the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Neither can escape 
until the bottles are opened, when the gas rushes out in bub- 
bles to make the foam, and the alcohol gives the sharp taste 
to the drink. Thus root beer, even though made at home, is 
an alcoholic drink, and the use of it may lead to the desire 
for something stronger. 



102 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Such drinks as soda water, sarsaparilla, giDger-ale, or 
vichy, with lime-juice or lemon-juice, are cooling and do not 
lead to a craving for more, for they contain no alcohol. They 
are made to effervesce, by having artificially made carbonic 
acid gas put into the bottles under pressure. When this 
escapes it makes a pleasant effervescence. 

Distilled Spirits, — Liquors. These are the most intoxi- 
cating and the most dangerous of all alcoholic drinks. They 
are about half alcohol and half water, and are flavored with 
spices or aromatics. Those in common use are whiskey, rum, 
brandy, and gin. The taste of each depends on what it is 
made of and what it is flavored with. 

Whiskey is made from corn or rye, and when a cheap 
quality is wanted, from potatoes. Eum is distilled from fer- 
mented molasses, brandy from wine already made from the 
juice of grapes, and gin from rye and other grains, flavored 
with juniper berries. 

Distillation is the process by which a liquid is turned 
into vapor by heat, and then condensed and turned into a 
liquid again. When water reaches its boiling point, at 212"^ 
F., it turns into steam. This steam, if caught on a cold plate, 
turns back to water again in form of dew. Alcohol boils and 
becomes vapor at a lower temperature than water. Therefore 
it passes off, leaving most of the w^ater behind, but not all, 
for alcohol has such a strong affinity for water that it carries 
some with its vapor. 

When brandy is to be distilled from wine, or whiskey from 
the fermented preparation of rye, the liquid is put in a copper 
vessel and heated, and the vapor, which is alcohol with some 
water, is carried off through a long pipe from the top of the 
still to a coil of pipe that is called the worm, and which is kept 
constantly cold. Here the vapor is condensed back again 
into alcohol, mixed with some water. If there is more water 
present than the manufacturer wants, he distills it again. 

As most malted drinks and wines contain only ten to fif- 



ALCOHOLIC DRIl^KS. 103 

teen per cent, of alcohol, it takes a large quantity of them to 
make whiskey or brandy. Therefore, these drinks are as much 
more expensive as they are intoxicating. Pure alcohol of 
commerce is obtained by distilling whiskey. 

It was a common thing in the early days of this century 
for every farmer to have a still of his own, and, by distilling 
cider, to make a liquor called apple-jack that was very intoxi- 
cating. At the present day the Government has forbidden 
the use of all private stills that are not licensed ; but, never- 
theless, in the wild mountain regions, the farmers have secret 
stills, and use their scanty crops to make a raw and fiery sort 
of whiskey that is very intoxicating, and which keeps the 
whole community in idleness and poverty. 

Few people could drink distilled liquors, which scald the 
throat and burn the stomach, unless their tastes were pre- 
pared for them by the use of milder alcoholic drinks. But 
everyone who has passed through the various stages of drink- 
ing, from the use of cider and beer up to the continued use 
of brandy or whiskey, finds that he constantly wants his 
drinks stronger, and that every drink increases the desire for 
more. 

Thus it will be seen that alcoholic beverages contain dif- 
ferent amounts of alcohol. The larger the percentage of alco- 
hol they contain, the more intoxicating they are, but drinks 
containing a small percentage of alcohol are quite capable of 
forming the alcoholic appetite. They are perhaps even more 
dangerous, for if a boy took a very strong drink of whiskey 
he would be terribly ill with nausea and headache, and all the 
horrors of intoxication. This would frighten him, for no boy 
would ever deliberately start out to be a drunkard ; but the 
pleasant taste of cider, and the fact that he feels only a sense 
of warmth and exhilaration after it, makes him think there is 
no harm in it ; but the appetite once aroused wants drink with 
larger and larger cjuantities of alcohol, so he passes from 
cider to beer, from beer to wines, and from wines to whiskey, 



104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIS^B HYGIENE. 

and from the state of being a pleasant companion to being a 
disgusting one, until he is a ''hard drinker." 

In addition to these widely used drinks which are known 
to contain alcohol there are a great many widely advertised 
"Tonics," ''Bitters," "Elixirs," and a great number of patent 
medicines, which contain large amounts of alcohol. These 
are capable of doing a great deal of harm, and are, moreover, 
deceptive, often establishing a craving for alcoholic drinks 
in persons who are innocent and ignorant of what they are 
taking. 

Cordials- — These are clear, sweetened liquids, variously 
colored, containing about one- third alcohol, and flavored 
with different aromatic and pungent oils, such as peppermint, 
anise, fennel, orange, etc. They are known by fancy French 
names, which refer to the flavor or to the place where they 
were supposed to be first manufactured. Some of them are 
distilled liquors, to which considerable sugar has been added. 
Most of them are made artificially by mixing one part of alco- 
hol with two of water, and then coloring and flavoring to suit. 

A great manj^ wines, liquors, and cordials are made arti- 
ficially. Alcohol and water are mixed in various proportions, 
more or less sugar added, then the peculiar flavor adapted to 
each variety, and finally a sufiicient amount of coloring mat- 
ter. Many of the substances added in the artificial manufact- 
ure of alcoholic drinks are of a very injurious and poisonous 
character ; thus other poisons are added to the alcohol. 

Some of the General Effects of the Alcoholic 
Drinks. — The alcohol in alcoholic drinks does not take the 
place of a true food, for it is incapable of producing new tis- 
sues and cannot make the body stronger, nor give it heat ; but, 
on the contrary, it breaks down the tissues and makes a per- 
son less capable of standing hardship or exposure, and lowers 
the temperature of the body. 

Effect of Alcohol on Food,— When a person drinks 
alcoholic liquors with his meals, the alcohol affects the food 



ALCOHOLIC DEIJSTKS. 105 

that is taken into the stomach. When a piece of meat is put 
in alcohol it becomes quite hard, and when a quantity of alco- 
holic drink is taken with one's dinner, the tender, well-cooked 
meat is hardened, and the gastric juice has difficulty in di- 
gesting it. If you melt a little cheese and pour beer on it, 
you will see how, from being soft and brittle, the cheese at 
on^ce becomes tough and stringy. A glass of beer, with a 
lunch consisting of bread and cheese, would not seem to aid 
its digestion. 

When food tastes savory and appetizing, we eat more of 
it, but alcohol affects the taste, and makes food seem flat and 
insipid, unless it is very highly seasoned ; soon a drinking 
man loses appetite for simple, nourishing food, and it is very 
common to hear a man say that he never takes any lunch, but 
a glass of beer. 

Alcoholic drinks, by preventing the food in the stomach 
from being quickly and thoroughly digested, causes fermen- 
tation, and this produces a nausea and headache. (They are 
a common cause of dyspepsia.) So alcoholic drinks are not 
only useless in themselves, but they diminish the value of 
nourishing food that may be taken with them. 

A Summary of the Diseases Caused or Aggra- 
vated by the Use of Alcoholic Drinks.— It is said that 
every person carries from childhood the cause of his death, 
such as a weak heart, that will give out in diphtheria or pneu- 
monia ; w^eak lungs, that will contract consumption, or a weak 
stomach, that will contract dyspepsia. These are called con- 
.stitutional weaknesses, and there are none of them that are 
not aggravated by alcohol. 

Alcoholic consumption, physicians say, is the most hope- 
less kind. 

Alcoholic dyspepsia cannot be cured until long after the 
patient stops drinking. 

Pneumonia in people of drinking habits is nearly always 
fatal. 



106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYOIEJ^-E. 

Heart disease is aggravated by the use of liquors, and 
some fatal forms are caused by it. 

Liver complaints of any kind are aggravated by the use 
of alcohol, and some forms are due directly to it and to noth- 
ing else. 

Bright's disease (a disease of the kidneys) is caused in 
about one-half the cases by the use of alcoholic drinks. 

Broken bones in drunkards do not readily unite, and 
cuts and wounds which would heal quickl}^ in temperate peo- 
ple, are apt to become gangrenous in the unhealthy flesh of 
intemperate men, and cause their death. 

Extreme nervousness is one penalty that every drinking 
man pays. His hands tremble, his heart palpitates, and he 
cannot control his finer movements with precision. 

Alcoholic Drinks and the Expectancy of Life.— 
Life insurance companies give us the best estimate of the 
chances of long life among the victims of the alcohol habit, 
as comj^ared with those who have abstained from alcoholic 
drinks. It may be well to explain the principle upon which 
these life insurance companies do business. Life insurance 
has for its object the payment of a certain sum of money by 
the company to the heirs of the insured person, after the 
death of the latter. In order to become insured, a person is 
examined by the company's doctor, and must be in good 
health ; he must then pay a certain sum of money to the com- 
pany every year, usually only a small fraction of the amount 
he becomes insured for. 

Insurance companies have made out tables showing how 
long a person can expect to live at any given age ; of course, 
these show onl}^ averages, for none of us can say he will be 
alive to-morrow, or knows when he will die. These tables 
give what is called the '' expectancy of life " ; they show that 
the average length of life of persons who indulge freely in al- 
coholic drink is much shorter than in others, and in the case 
of drunkards it is very short indeed. 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 107 

At the age of twenty, the expectancy of life in the sober 
is forty-four years ; in the drunken it is fifteen years. At 
the age of thirty, the expectancy of life in the sober is thirty- 
six years ; in the drunken it is fourteen years. At the age of 
forty the expectancy of life in the sober is twenty-nine years ; 
in the drunken it is only eleven years. 

* Fifty years' experience of one large insurance company 
has shown that the deaths among men who are engaged in 
the liquor business and who drink a great deal, are half as 
many again as among all other classes of individuals at the 
same age. No company will knowingly insure a drunkard, 
for the reason that his chances of a long life are very few. 
Many companies refuse to insure saloon-keepers, because they 
are usually compelled to take much alcoholic liquor. 

Moral Effects of Alcoholic Drinks. — The moral view 
of the alcoholic question is a very important one. No one 
will deny that it is a shocking sight to behold an intoxicated 
man stagger along the street, holding on to anything for sup- 
port, unable to control speech or motion, offensive in breath, 
and dirty in appearance. 

Money Spent in Alcoholic Drinks. — Even the milder 
forms of alcoholic poisoning are associated with conditions 
which are well worth considering. There are millions of dol- 
lars uselessly spent for alcoholic drink each year. How many- 
useful things this immense sum of money would purchase, and 
how much good it might accomplish ! Consider how much 
time is wasted in saloons, often in wretched companionship, 
which might otherwise be given to the family at home. In 
1893, the consumption of alcoholic drink in the United States 
reached the following enormous figures : Distilled spirits 
(liquors), one hundred million gallons ; wines, thirty million 
gallons ; malt liquors, twelve hundred million gallons. The 
yearly cost of alcoholic drinks in the United States is said to 
be over one billion dollars. 

Alcoholic Drinks and Crime.— The use of intoxicat- 



108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

ing liquor is the most common cause of crime ; this fact must 
be conceded hj everyone. One of the reports of the Prison 
Association of New York contains the following passage : 
'' There can be no doubt that of all the proximate sources of 
crime, the use of intoxicating liquors is the most prolific and 
the most deadly. Of other causes it may be said that they 
slay their thousands ; of this it may be acknowledged that it 
slays its tens of thousands." The Committee asked for the 
opinion of the jail officers in nearly every county in the State 
as to the proportion of commitments due either directly or 
indirectly to strong drink. And what was the answer? "That 
alcoholic drinks were responsible for at least seven-eighths of 
the cases of crime." 



SYNOPSIS. 

The origin of alcoholic drinks. 

Alcohol and the alcoholic appetite. 

Fermentation. What it is and how to prevent it. 

Cider. 

Wines . 

Champagnes. 

Malt liquors. 

Distilled spirits, whiskey, brandy, etc. 

Bitters, cordials. 

Some of the general effects of alcoholic drinks. 

Effects of alcohol on food : 

On the food itself ; meat, cheese, etc. 

On the stomach and intestines. 
A summary of the diseases caused or aggravated by the use of 

alcoholic drinks. 
Alcoholic drinks and life insurance. 
The moral effects of alcoholic drinks. 
Money spent in alcoholic drinks. 
Alcoholic drinks and crime. 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 109 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What class of drinks besides tea and coffee are in common use ? 
2. Why is it necessary to understand their nature ? 3. By what 
process are they produced ? 4. Describe fermentation and illustrate. 
What change does it produce in the sugar of fruit-juice ? 5. What 
is the nature of alcohol ? 6. Describe the craving produced by al- 
cohol. How does it differ from normal appetite ? 7. How can the 
fermentation of fruit- juices be prevented ? 8. Describe the results of 
fermentation in bread-making. 9. What is cider, and how is it made ? 
10. Give some of the results of cider-drinking. 11. How are wines 
made, and what danger attends their use? 12. W^hat are malt 
liquors ? How are they made ? What is a peculiar effect of beer- 
drinking ? 13. What is meant by distilled spirits ? How are they 
obtained ? 14. How is the taste for strong liquors acquired ? 15. 
What are cordials? 16. Why are they to be avoided? 17. What 
general effects have alcoholic drinks on food taken into the 
stomach ? 18. What are some of the diseases caused or aggravated 
by the use of alcoholic drinks? 19. What effect has the use of 
alcoholic drinks on one's probable length of life? 20. What are the 
effects of alcoholic drinking on the crime of a large city ? 




Fig. 49.— The Blood-vessels. 



In the right half of the figure the arteries are shown ; in 
the left half, the veins. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

THE BLOOD AND THE CIECULATION — THE HEART 
AND THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 

If you cut your finger you notice a red fluid escaping 
from the wound which you call hlood. If the cut be a slight 
one, only a little blood will be lost, and the accident will not 
worry you much ; but if it be deeper, you may have trouble in 
stopping the bleeding, and you would feel alarmed, for every- 
one knows how important the blood is. It is called life's Jiuid^ 
and it deserves the name ; for if one -quarter of the blood is 
lost, life would be in danger ; and if one- third were lost, certain 
death would result. 

Appearance of Blood. — Blood is a thin fluid of a 
red color. If we look at the blood of an artery, the color is bright 
red ; but in the veins the blood is of a darh red color. Why 
this difference exists will be explained later. Although it has 
this red color, the fluid part of the blood is not red, but yellow- 
ish. It looks red because there are a great many small red 
bodies floating in it. These we call the blood-globules. 

Composition of the Blood. — The blood is composed 
.of a yellowish fluid, c^led plasma, in which we find millions 
of small bodies, mostly of a red color, which we call the blood- 
globules. 

Blood-globules. — If we take a drop of blood and 
look at it under the microscope, we can easily see these blood- 
globules. Even in a small drop of blood, there are about ten 
millions of them, which will give an idea of the great number 
there must be in the entire body. 



112 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



The IVTicroscope. — This instrument has often been 
alluded to in these pages, and is constantly 
used in studying the finer structure of 
different parts of the body. Probably 
everyone knows what a magnifying-glass 
is, and has seen it used for making objects 
look larger. Perhaps, too, many of you 
have brought the rays of the sun together 
into a small spot on your hand and found 
how this burns. On this account, the mag- 
nifying-glass is often called a burning- 
glass. Such a magnifying-glass makes 
objects appear five or six times as large as 
they really are. If several very strong 
magnifying-glasses were placed one over 
another in a metal tube (Fig. 50), objects 
looked at through all of them would 
appear a hundred, or even a thousand 
times larger than they really were, and 
this would constitute a microscope. 

Red Blood-globules. — If a drop of blood be looked 
at under the microscope, the yellow fluid is seen plainly, and 
in it we also see the blood -globules in great numbers. Most 

of these globules are of a reddish color, 
flat, with the edge a little thicker than 
the centre. These are called the red 
blood-globules. After the blood leaves 
the body, thes^ red blood-globules are 
apt to stick together at their sides (Fig. 
51), and in this way columns are formed 
looking like rolls of coin piled one upon 
another. 

White Blood-globules. — Be- 
sides the red blood-globules there are others which are white, 
and somewhat larger than the red (Fig. 51). These are not flat, 




Fig. 50.— The Microscope. 




Fig. 51. — ^Human Red and 
White Blood-globuleF!. The red 
globules are seen to be flattened 
and in rolls ; the white ones are 
alone, dotted, and larger. 



THE BLOOD AKB THE CIRCtlLATIOI^. 



113 



but perfectly round, like a sphere, and have two or three spots 
in their centre. There are very few of these white bodies, 
which we call white blood-globules, compared to the large number 
of the red ones. We call both the red and the white ones glob- 
ules, because of their shape, the word globule meaning a little 
sphere. 

The Plasma. — The watery, fluid portion of the blood 
in which the red and the white blood-globules float is called 
the blood-plasma. 

Blood of Other Animals. — In other animals, as in 
man, the blood is red and is formed of plasma, red blood-glob- 
ules, and white blood-globules. 
There is, however, one difference 
in some animals. In man the red 
blood-globules are flattened, cir- 
cular, and perfectly clear, having 
no spots in the centre. 

In many of the larger animals, 
and in all of our domestic animals, 
the red blood-globules have this 

Fig. 52.— The Red Blood-globules in same shapC. But in the blood of 
Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles (on left of ^ . 

figfure) as Compared with Those of Man bivds, fisheS, and CCrtaiU Othcr aUl- 
(right half of figure). i i-i i i n • i 

mals like snakes and alligators, 
which we call reptiles^ the red blood-globules, while still of the 
same color as in man, are oval in shape, and have a spot in 
the centre (Fig. 52). 

Use of the Red Blood-globules. — The red blood- 
globules have a very important use, to explain which it will be 
necessary to say something about the air we breathe. The air 
is made up principally of two gases : One-fifth is a rich gas 
called oxygen. It is the gas which is necessary for life. The 
rest is a gas called nitrogen, which serves to dilute the oxygen 
so that it may not be too rich, but just right for breathing. 
When we inhale air it passes into our lungs and stays there a 
short time, and while there the blood takes some of the oxygen 




114 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

from the air. In the lungs there are a great many small blood- 
vessels. The oxygen passes through the thin walls of these 
and the blood flowing along takes it up. The watery part of 
the blood cannot take up the oxygen ; the red blood-globules 
do this. At the same time the color of the blood, which was 
dark red before the oxygen was taken up, changes to a bright 
red. After tbe red blood-globules have taken up this valuable 
gas, they carry it to different parts of the body and give it to 
the tissues which have become used up, so that they become 
built up again. 

Use of the Plasma. — The fluid part of the blood also 
has a special use. When the different tissues of the body are 
being used up, they give off a poisonous gas which is called 
carbonic acid gas. This gas is quite heavy and often collects at 
the bottom of w^ells or in cellars that have been dark and shut 
up for a long time. You sometimes read of people losing their 
lives by going down into such wells and cellars, for this gas is 
so poisonous that the people cannot breathe it and they choke 
to death. In such cases, if it is suspected that this gas may be 
collected there, a lighted candle should first be lowered into 
them ; if it w411 not burn, it would be dangerous there for a 
human being. For where this carbonic acid gas is present, the 
oxygen is absent or very little is present, and the candle re- 
quires oxygen to burn just as w^e do to breathe and live. After 
the plasma has taken up this poisonous carbonic acid gas, it 
carries it to the lungs where it passes through the walls of the 
blood-vessels and escapes into the air. This is the reason why 
the air w4iich we breathe out is not so pure as that which we 
breathe in. 

Difference between the Blood in Arteries and 
the Blood in Veins. — The blood flowing in the arteries is of 
a bright red color, because it has just received a supply of oxy- 
gen from the air in the lungs, and has given up its poisonous 
gas to the air. The blood in the veins is of a dark red color 
because the tissues have robbed it of the oxygen which it had 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIECCJLATIOISr. 115 

before, and have given it a large supply of the poisonous car- 
bonic acid gas. The blood in veins is warmer than that of 
arteries. 

Clotting of the Blood. — While the blood is in the 
body and in the vessels through which it usually moves, it is 
fluid. But if taken from the body, and placed in the air, it 
very* soon becomes thicker and thicker, and finally is a soft 
solid, about as thick as jelly. If in a cup, it may then be 
turned out, and, like jelly, it will retain the shape of the cup. 
In addition to the thick part, a quantity of yellow fluid will 
also be found to have separated. Blood never becomes hard, 
even when it solidifies ; it becomes a soft jelly-like solid. 
This change of the blood from the fluid to the solid state 
after it is removed from the blood-vessels is called dotting. 
The thickened blood we call a dot, while the yellow fluid 
which separates is called the serum. It is, of course, not nat- 
ural for blood to clot except when it is exposed to the air, or 
when there has been some change in the blood-vessel. It is 
quite difficult to understand why this thickening occurs, but 
if we examine the blood under the microscope after it has 
clotted we see that a large number of very fine hair-like bodies 
called fibres have appeared, and that these run in every di- 
rection and across one another, and that the blood-globules 
have been caught and entangled among them ; and this makes 
the blood thicken. 

Value of the Clotting of Blood.— This thickening 
or clotting of blood is of the greatest importance. If it were 
not for this we should bleed to death every time we cut our- 
selves. For when a wound is made, the blood flows until a 
crust forms, and this crust stops the bleeding. This crust is 
the same thickening, or clotting, of which we have been speak- 
ing, and there would be no way to stop bleeding permanently if 
it were not for this. You might press your finger on the wound 
and stop the bleeding in this way, but as soon as you took your 
finger off the blood would flow again. 



116 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEKE. 

The Circulation. — Thus far we have been speaking 
of the blood itself. Now we will study how the blood flows 
through the body, for our blood is constantly moving. This 
we can see very well in the frog. If we take some part of the 
frog, as for instance, one of the thin parts of the foot, and 
spread it out and look at it under the microscope, we shall 
see the blood in motion. The only reason we cannot see it in 
man is that there is no part thin enough and transparent 
enough for us to see through. If we examine the thin part 
of the frog's foot in this way we shall see a number of tubes, 




Fig. 53.— The Blood in Motion, as Seen in the Small Blood-vessels of the Frog's Foot. 

and in the centre a fluid full of small bodies — some red, some 
white — these are the blood-globules. It will be seen that 
there are a great many red ones and only a few white ones. 
And you can also notice that the red ones hurry along, a great 
many in company, in the centre of the stream, while the few 
white ones seem to rub against the wall of the blood-vessel, 
and go along quite slowly. It is a beautiful sight and is an- 
other illustration of how wonderfully we are constructed. In 



THE BLOOD AIS^D THE CIRCULATIOJS^. 



117 



studying the manner in whicb blood flows through our bodies 
it will be necessary to commence with a description of the 
heart, the arteries, the veins, and the capillaries. 



THE HEART. 



Situation of the Heart.— The heart is the most 
important organ in the body. It is placed in the chest, be- 




FiG. 54. —The Heart in Its Natural Position, It is surrounded by its sac, the pericardium ; 
on each side the lungs are seen ; above, the large vessels are seen springing from it. In 
order to see all this the front of the chest is represented as having been removed. 



tween the lungs, and is covered in front by the breast-bone 
(Fig. 54). It projects beyond the breast-bone on each side, but 



118 



AT^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIN^D HYGIEIS^E. 



more to the left than to the right. If the hand be placed upon 
the front of the chest on the left side the beat of the heart can 
be felt. This corresponds to the position of the pointed end of 
the heart. If the ear be placed over this spot the sound made 
by the beating of the heart can be heard. 

Form of the Heart.— The heart is shaped like a cone, 
with the wide part above and the point below. It measures 
five inches from one end to the other. It is hollow (Figs. 56 
and 57), and its walls are formed of muscle-tissue. 

The Pe r icard i u m . — The heart is surrounded by a sac, 
called the pericardium, mean- 
ing around the heart. Between 
this sac and the heart is a 
space in which a little fluid is 
found. 

Cavities of the 
Heart. — The heart is hollow, 
so as to have spaces through 
which the blood can flow. It 
has four such spaces. If we 
look at the heart from the out- 
side, we can first divide it iuto 
two halves, a left and a right. 
The right and the left sides of 
the heart are separated by a 
groove which runs from the 
wide part of the heart above 
to the point below. Then 
there is a horizontal groove, 
which runs across this vertical 
one and divides each side into 
two smaller parts, an upper 
and a lower. If we examine 
the interior of the heart we find four spaces. The partitions 
which separate these spaces are placed within, exactly where 




Fig. 55.- 



The Heart and the Large Vessels 
Given off from it. 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATIOK. 



119 




Fig. 56.— Outline 
Sketch Showing the 
Arrangement of the 
Cavities of the Heart. 
A, Right Auricle; B, 
Left Auricle; C, Right 
Ventricle ; D, Left 
Ventricle. 



the grooves are found on the outside. So that each side of the 
heart has two spaces, an upper and a lower (Figs. 56 and 57). 
The upper spaces are called auricles, and the 
lower ventricles. Consequently, there is a 
right auricle and a left auricle, and a right 
ventricle and a left ventricle. The ventricles 
are much larger than the auricles. The wall 
of the heart is much thicker on the left side 
than it is on the right. 

Function of the Heart- — The heart 
serves to pump the blood into the blood-ves- 
sels with such force that it flows all through 
the body. The walls of the heart are made of 
muscle, and this muscle is constantly contract- 
ing, and each time it contracts we say it beats. 
When it does this the whole heart becomes 
smaller, and its cavities become smaller, and thus the blood is 
forced out. After this the heart expands again, its auricles and 
ventricles become wider, and the blood flows into them from 
the veins until the heart becomes filled. These actions of the 
heart are being continually repeated. 

Frequency of the Heart-beats. — In the grown per- 
son, the heart beats about seventy times a minute. In the 
child, it beats eighty or more. In the old person it may only 
beat sixty a minute. When sick with fever, the heart works 
more rapidly than in health, and then often beats over a hun- 
dred a minute. 

Course of the Blood. — When the blood leaves the 
heart it passes from the right side of the heart to the lungs, 
thence it returns to the left side of the heart, thence it passes 
into the arteries all through the body, and thence it returns 
through the veins to the right side of the heart (Fig. 58). The 
way in which the blood circulates and its course were discov- 
ered in 1618, by an Englishman, named Harvey. It was a won- 
derful discovery. Before Harvey's time nothing was known 



120 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

about the way in which the blood flows. The ancients imagined 
that the arteries contain air. 




Fig. 57.— The Heart (the Front has Been Removed), Showing the Interior. 

The Circulation through the Lungs. — All the 

blood passes from the veins into the right side of the heart, 
first into the upper space (auricle), and thence into the lower 
space (ventricle). When these two become full of blood the 
heart contracts and squeezes out the blood into a large artery 
(the pulmonary artery), which carries it to the lungs. Here 
the blood passes into smaller and smaller arteries, and, finally, 



THE BLOOD AKD THE CIRCULATION. 121 

into the very finest tubes, which we call the capillaries (from 
a Latin word meaning a hair, because they are so very 
small). 

While the blood flows through these capillaries of the 
hing, it meets the air taken in when we inhale : and from this 




Fig. 58. — Diagram Showing the Course of the Blood Through the Heart, Lungs, and Body- 
in Greneral. 



air it absorbs the oxygen, and gives to it the poisonous carbonic 
acid gas. Thus in passing through the lungs the blood has 
gained oxygen and lost the poisonous gas ; and in doing this it 
changes from the dark red color it had before to a bright red 
color ; it is now purified. The capillaries soon join to form 



122 AlS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ATs^D HYGIENE. 

larger and larger tubes, and these unite to form several large 
blood-vessels, which carry the purified blood back to the heart. 
But this time it passes to the left side of the heart, first through 
the left auricle and then through the left ventricle. When 
enough blood has flowed into the heart, it contracts and 
squeezes it out into a very large blood-vessel (the aorta), which 
carries it to the tissues in the different parts of the body. 

All this is shown very well in diagram in Fig. 58. 




Fig. 59. — The Valves of the Heart, and Between the Heart and the Large Vessels which 

Leave It. 



Starting above, we see the heart ; the shaded part to the left 
representing the right side. The impure blood passes hence 
to the lungs, gradually becoming purified and brighter as 
it passes through this organ. From the lungs it is seen 
to pass in its bright color to the left side of the heart 
(which is the portion of the heart unshaded on the diagram). 
Hence it passes along, as the arrow indicates, to the different 
parts of the body, called on the diagram the system. Pass- 
ing through the system and through the abdominal organs, 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION^. 123 

as shown in the diagram, the blood gradually becomes darker, 
and is shown to be carried by the large veins back again into 
the right side of the heart, the point at which we began to 
trace it. 

Valves of the Heart- — The valves of the heart resem- 
ble lids which are placed between the different spaces in the 
heart. They allow the blood to flow one way, but when it at- 
tempts to return in the opposite direction, they close up and 
prevent it. Fig. 59 shows them closed, thus shutting off and 
separating the different cavities of the heart. There are also 
similar valves placed between the heart and the large vessels 
which leave it. It will readily be seen how important it is that 
such a valve should exist between the left ventricle and the 
large artery which distributes the blood to the different parts 
of the body, the aorta; this valve prevents the blood from flow- 
ing back into the heart after it has been forced into the aorta. 

THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 

Those blood-vessels which take the purified blood from 
the heart and distribute it to all parts of the body are called 
arteries. The blood-vessels which return the used-up blood 
from the tissues to the heart are called veins. Between the 
smallest arteries and the smallest veins are the very finest 
blood-vessels, which are called capillaries. So that the blood, 
after being purified, passes through arteries, then capillaries, 
then veins. 

The Arteries. — The large artery which leaves the left 
side of the heart, the aorta, soon divides and subdivides, and 
these branches pass in many different directions, constantly giv- 
ing off other and smaller branches. A tree forms a very good 
example of how the arteries run in the body ; the large trunk 
of the tree corresponds to the large artery which leaves the 
heart, and the branches correspond to the branches of these 
arteries. 



124 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, Al^D HYGIE]S^E. 

The Pulse- — When you are sick, and the doctor is 
called, one of the first things he does is to feel your pulse. He 
will put his finger upon your wrist and he will take out his 
watch. Why does he do this? He is counting your pulse. 
If you put your finger upon your own wrist, in front, on the 
side on which the thumb is, you will feel something beat- 
ing. This is an artery, and the beating you feel is your 
pulse. Every time the heart beats the arteries beat, and this 
gives what is called the pulse. This will be understood if it 
be remembered that-every time the heart contracts it pumps 
blood into the arteries, and every time another heartful of blood 
is forced into the arteries, being elastic, they expand and grow 
wider. It is this expansion which is felt with your finger, and 
which is called the pulse. When the doctor counts the pulse, 
he can tell how slowly or how rapidly the heart is beating ; for 
the pulse is the same in number as the heart-beats. The rea- 
son we usually take the pulse at the wrist is because it is most 
convenient ; but there is a pulse in every artery of any size in 
the whole body. You can feel one at your temples, one at the 
side of your neck, and in many other places. 

The Capillaries. — These are the very smallest blood- 
vessels, and they connect the arteries with the veins. We find 
the capillaries almost everywhere. They are so small that we 
cannot see them without the use of the microscope. If you 
scratch yourself and a little blood comes, this is from some of 
the capillaries, not from an artery or vein ; for if an artery or 
vein is injured it is more serious. It is while the blood is pass- 
ing through the capillaries from the arteries to the veins, that 
the tissues take from it the oxygen and give up to it the poi- 
sonous carbonic acid gas. And after this change has taken 
place, the color of the blood has changed from the bright red 
of the purified blood in the arteries to the dark red of the im- 
pure blood in the veins. 

The Veins- — After the blood has passed through the 
different tissues by means of the capillaries these unite to form 



THE BLOOD AKD THE CtECULATlOIT. 125 

the smallest veins, and many of these join to form larger ones, 
until finally we have a single large vein, just as we had a sin- 
gle large artery. But there is this difference : The artery 
started from the heart and went to the tissues ; the veins 
start in the tissues and gradually join into a large one which 
goes to the heart. The arteries, too, contained bright-red, 
pure blood ; the veins are filled with dark-red or purple, im- 
pure blood. 

Valves of the Veins. — There is still another differ- 
ence between veins and arteries : Veins have valves (Fig. 60). 

In the arteries the blood has no 
difficulty in going anywhere, 
even up-hill, because the heart 
pumps it along with consider- 
able force. But there is nothing 
of this sort behind the blood in 
the veins, for after the blood has 
travelled through the capillaries 
it has lost most of the force 
given it by the heart. It would 
therefore be impossible for the 
blood to flow up-hill in the veins, 
as, for instance, in the legs, if 
there were not some arrange- 
ment for this purpose. This 

Fig. 60.— a Pair of Valves in One of the . . . , . 

Veins. They are open ; the direction of the arrangement COUSlsts m havmg 
flow of blood is indicated by the arrow. i • i 

valves (Fig. 60) which allow the 
blood to flow toward the heart, but close up, and thus prevent 
it from going in the opposite direction. 

Rapidity of the Circulation of the Blood-— The 
blood flows through its vessels very quickly, and it takes about 
half a minute for it to pass from the heart through the lungs, 
all through the body and back again to the heart. How many 
blood-vessels must it pass through in this short time ! 

Fainting. — When a person becomes pale and would 




126 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEIN^E. 

fall if be did not hold on to something, we say he has fainted. 
This often happens after he has been sick and tries to walk 
before he is strong enough. The proper thing to do for such a 
person is to lay him down perfectly flat. There should be no 
pillow underneath the head. If possible, the head should be 
even lower than the rest of the body so that the blood may run 
into the head and fill the blood-vessels of the brain ; for the 
usual reason for the fainting is that the heart becomes weak and 




Fig. 61. — Method of Controlling Bleeding from a Large Wound. 



has not sufficient force to send enough blood to the brain. It 
is also important that no crowd should gather around the person, 
so that he can get all the air possible. The extremities should 
be stroked or rubbed toward the trunk, so as to facilitate the 
flow of blood. 

Bleeding- — If we hurt ourselves in any way and the 
bleeding is slight, it will usually stop of itself or after we ap- 
ply a little court-plaster. But suppose we receive a deep cut 
and the blood flows freely and we cannot stop it, what shall 



THE BLOOD AKD THE CIKCULATIOIS'. 127 

we do until the doctor arrives ? We should press upon the in- 
jured part Ja8^ above the cut, or tie a string around it instead 
of pressing with the finger. For instance, if it is the tip of the 
finger which is bleeding very much, we can tie a string around 
the finger an inch or so above the cut and this will stop the 
bleeding. If it is a larger part, as the arm or the forearm, 
tie ^ handkerchief around the limb above the injury and 
tighten this by means of a stick put under the handkerchief, 
and twist until it is very tight (Fig. 61). Another name for 
bleeding is hemorrhage. 

How to have a Good Circulation. — If we wish to 
be in good health, the circulation must be good and brisk. If 
the circulation be sluggish, we are apt to suffer in all parts of 
the body, because no part gets as much blood as it should. With 
a poor circulation the feet are apt to be cold in winter, the per- 
son catches cold easily, he is quickly chilled, he may have head- 
ache, and he is not in the best of health. If we want good 
health, our circulation must be good. 

Exercise is the great medicine for a good circulation. 
Any good form of exercise will answer and exercise in the open 
air is the best, because while we are making our blood go 
faster we are also getting more oxygen to the tissues and build- 
ing them up more quickly. Too much exercise, making one 
very tired, or too severe exercise, such as lifting too heavy 
weights, is injurious, because it tires out the heart and makes 
it weak. And if the exercise be much too severe there is even 
danger of bursting a small blood-vessel, though this does not 
happen often. 

Effect of Alcohol upon the Blood and Circulation. 
— The first immediate effect of a drink of liquor is a warm sen- 
sation all over the body, esj)ecially in the face, which becomes 
flushed. This is because the alcohol drives the blood to the 
capillaries under the skin where it soon becomes cooled by 
the air, so that instead of making the blood warmer it really 
cools it. The capillaries and walls of the arteries are very 



128 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIEKB. 

elastic, and when they are filled with blood they stretch to 
their utmost, and then regain their natural size. But fre- 
quent stretching causes them to lose their power to contract 
and they remain dilated. The only part of the body where 
this can be seen is in the nose and cheeks, which in a drink- 
ing man are covered with a fine network of veins that are red 
or purple from being gorged with blood. The effect is the 
same, however, in other organs of the body, and in some cases 
the frequent dilation causes the walls of the blood-vessels to 
become so thin that they burst. When this happens in the 
brain the blood that escapes forms a clot which presses on 
the delicate cells of the brain and causes death by what is 
known as apoplexy. 

The blood is directly affected by alcohol. If a lot of 
cherries were placed in alcohol they would become hardened 
and somewhat shrivelled, because the alcohol would suck all 
the water out of them. When alcohol is circulating in the 
blood an effect similar in proportion to the amount of alcohol 
present happens to the little red corpuscles in the blood. The 
alcohol absorbs water from them and leaves them shrunken 
and impaired. 

These red blood corpuscles are the scavengers of the 
blood. They run arouod through the capillaries carrying 
oxygen, which burns up here a little clot of worn-out muscle, 
there a little useless fat. When a number of them are out of 
order and cannot work the blood becomes filled with impuri- 
ties that are not oxidized or burned, and these break out in 
the form of pimples or blotches. 

The use of alcohol also tends to make the blood lose its 
power to clot, so that if a drunkard receives a wound or cut 
the blood which ought to close the wound naturally and 
exude the serum that forms new tissue, is too thin to do this 
readily and the wound is a long time healing. Sometimes it 
will not heal at all, and a man dies from a hurt that would 
not have been fatal had his blood not been so poor from the 
effects of alcohol. 



THE BLOOD AKD THE CIROULATIO:^^. 129 

Effects of Alcohol upon the Heart.— When a drink 
of alcoholic liquor is taken it usually increases for a few min- 
utes the beating of the heart, but lessens its force. It is the 
nerves of the heart that are affected by alcohol. There are at 
least two kinds : one that acts on the muscles to force the 
blood through, and another set that make the muscles hold 
the blood back, letting it go just fast enough. The first set 
act like a whip, and a second set like a pair of reins to hold a 
horse in. 

If a man who was driving a spirited horse should sud- 
denly have his hands paralyzed the reins would slip through 
them, and the horse would run at full speed until he was 
tired, then he would gradually slacken his pace and walk 
slowly. This is the effect of alcohol. It paralyzes the nerves 
that hold in the muscles of the heart, and as soon as their grip 
is loosened, the nerves that urge the muscleB on have it all 
their own way, and the heart beats at the rate of ninety or 
more times to the minute, instead of about seventy times. 
Soon it gets tired and goes more weakly and slowly. AVhile 
it is racing along a man feels that he can do anything ; that is 
why he says that a drink of whiskey braces him up and puts 
new life into him, and why, when the exciting influence has 
worn off, he feels so tired and blue and de23ressed, and does 
not want to work. 

One form of heart disease caused frequently by the use 
of alcohol is called ''Fatty Degeneration of the Heart." The 
heart is all muscle, but alcohol causes little portions of the 
tissue to give place to globules of fat. It becomes enlarged 
and gradually grows weaker until it stops beating, for there 
is no medicine that can change the unhealthy fat back into 
good muscle. 

Another form of heart disease is due to the gradual weak- 
ening of the walls through the extra pressure put upon them. 
A man accustomed to the use of alcohol may not know that his 
heart and blood-vessels are weakened, and suddenly, without 



130 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIE:^rE. 

any warning, a little over-exertion may rupture their walls 
and he will die from the effects of the hemorrhage. 

Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart and Circula- 
tion. — Tobacco also causes an irregular action of the heart. 
Sometimes it beats feebly and sometimes -very fast and hard. 
This is called palpitation. It is a distressing trouble, for the 
heart feels as if it were fluttering like a bird. 

By feeling the pulse a physician can detect a ''tobacco 
heart," which means a heart that is suffering from the influ- 
ence of tobacco. About one of every four tobacco-users has 
some trouble of this nature with the heart. Very few young 
boys who smoke cigarettes can be found who have no form of 
heart disease. Physicians who are authorities on tbe subject 
say that cigarette smoking or the use of tobacco in any form 
should be expressh^ forbidden to growing boys. 

The heart is the organ that is chiefly affected by the use 
of tobacco, but as it is the vital organ, any trouble with it seri- 
ously affects the rest of the body. The circulation and the 
digestion are apt to be poor and the breath to be offensive. 
It is rarely that men who drink do not smoke, the two habits 
go hand in hand, the one injuring the brain and the other the 
heart ; so that when a man with these habits established pre- 
sents himself to a physician for any treatment whatsoever, 
his chances are lessened ; for every organ in his body is either 
directly or indirectly affected. 

THE LYMPHATICS. 

Besides the blood-vessels there are other small tubes, in 
which there flows a colorless fluid, looking like water, which is 
called lymph, and these tubes are therefore called lymphatics. 
They are shown in Fig. 62. They differ from the blood-vessels 
in not containing blood ; another difference is that all the 
lymphatics run toward the heart. 

The lymphatics begin by the very smallest tubes, as 
small or smaller than the very finest capillaries. They then 
join together and form larger vessels, and finally they form two 



THE BLOOD AXD THE CIRCULATION. 131 

large tubes which open into the large veins in the neck (Fig. 
62). 

The lymphatics help the veins in returning the used-up 
fluids of the tissues to the heart. "We have already learnt that 




Fig. 62. — The Lymphatics and Lacteals. 

fresh, bright blood is brought to the tissues by the arteries, 
and that it circulates through the capillaries of the tissues. 
After the tissues have removed the nutritious portions, the 
used-up fluid is returned to the heart, partly by the veins and 
partly by the lymphatics. 

In studying digestion we found that there are certain 



132 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

vessels in the abdomen which collect the nutritious juices from 
the stomach and intestines and convey them to the blood. 
These are called lacteals, and they are merely a part of the 
lymphatics. 



SYNOPSIS. 
The Blood : 

1. Importance — * Life's fluid ; ' death when one-third is lost. 

2. AppearaDce — Thin, watery fluid ; red color, bright or dark. 

3. Composition : 

(1.) Globules : 

a. Red — Flat, edge thicker than centre, circular in 
man and many animals ; oval and spot in centre in 
birds, reptiles, and fishes ; serve to carry the oxygen 
to the tissues ; very numerous. 

h. White — Larger, dotted ; much less numerous. 
(2). Plasma — The fluid of the blood serves to carry the 
poisonous carbonic acid gas from the tissues to the lungs. 

4. Difierence in Arteries and Veins : 

(1.) In arteries — Bright red ; contains more oxygen and 
less carbonic acid gas ; cooler ; 2)urer. 

(2.) In veins — Dark red ; contains less oxygen and more 
carbonic acid gas ; warmer ; more impure. 

5. Clotting : 

(1.) Occurrence — When removed from or change in the 
blood-vessels. 

(2.) Products— Clot and serum. 
(3.) Value — Serves to stop bleeding. 
The Heart : 

1. Situation— Between the lungs, behind the breast-bone. 

2. Form — Cone-shaped, pointed end downward ; hollow. 

3. Covering — Sac called the pericardium. 

4. Structure — Muscle-tissue ; a horizontal and a vertical 
groove divides it into two upper and two lower j)ortions, a left 
and a right half. 

5. Cavities — Four: right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle, 
left ventricle. 

6. Function — To pump the blood into the lungs and all parts 
of the body through the arteries. 



THE BLOOD AIN^D THE CIRCULATIO]^. 138 

7. Frequency of Beats — In adults, about seventy times per 
minute ; in children, more ; in the aged, less ; in fevers, more. 

8. Valves — To separate the different cavities, when necessary, 
and to prevent the return of blood pumped into the aorta. 

The Circulation — discovered by Harvey in 1618 : 

1. From right auricle to 

2. Right ventricle, then through pulmonary artery to 

3. Lungs ; here the blood meets the air and is purified, tak- 
ing up oxygen and losing the poisonous carbonic acid gas. 
From the lungs it returns to 

4. Left auricle, then to 

5. Left ventricle ; then it is forced into 

6. The aorta, and then through the branches of this into 

7. The arteries, carrying it to different parts of the body ; 
from these it passes into 

8. The capillaries, which join to form 

9. Veins, and these gradually grow larger, and finally empty 
into a very large one which enters the right auricle of the 
heart. 

10. Rapidity — It takes about half a minute for the blood to 
pass from the heart through the lungs and the system back to 
the heart again. 

The Arteries : 

1. Function — To carry pure, bright blood to the tissues. 

2. Origin — From the aorta, which springs from the heart. 

3. Branches — Constantly become smaller. _ 

4. Pulse — Owing to the contraction of the heart. 

5. Direction of Flow — From the heart to the tissues. 
The Veins : 

1. Function — To carry impure, dark blood from the tissues 
to the heart. 

2. Origin — From the capillaries, smaller ones gradually unit- 
ing to form larger ones. 

3. Branches — Gradually becoming larger. 

4. No pulse. 

5. Direction of Flow — from the tissues toward the heart. 

6. Valves — To aid the flow of the blood toward the heart. 
The Capillaries : 

1. Connect arteries and veins. 



134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

2. Allow the tissues to abstract oxygen and nutritious mat- 
ters and to add carbonic acid gas and used-up fluids. 

3. Very small, can only be seen by microscope. 
Accidents to and Care of Circulation : 

1. Fainting — Due to scarcity of blood in brain ; lay person 
horizontal, with head low ; plenty of air ; rub extremities toward 
the trunk. 

2. Bleeding : 

a. If slight will stop by itself, or after use of court- 
plaster. 

h. If severe, press upon the injured part just above the 
cut, or tie something around it here. 

3. Good Circulation necessary to good health. 

4. Necessity of proper exercise to keep up a good circulation. 

5. Effects of Alcohol upon the Heart and Circulation : 

a. Enlarges heart. 
h. Weakens it. 

c. Makes heart fatty. 

d. Flushed face. 

e. Changes arteries. 

/. AjDoplexy, bursting of one of arteries of brain. 

6. Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart and Circulation : 

a. Causes heart to beat too rapidly or too slowly. 
h. Causes heart to beat too weakly or too strongly, 
c. Causes heart to beat irregularly. 
The Lymphatics : 

1. Description — Small tubes containing a colorless fluid called 
''lymph." 

2. Differ from blood-vessels in not containing blood, and in 
that they all run toward the heart. 

3. Begin by very smallest tubes, which by joining together 
form larger ones. 

4. End by two large tubes, which empty into the large veins 
of the neck. 

5. Function, to help the veins in returning the used-up fluids 
of the tissues to the heart, and also to convey nutritious fluids 
from the intestines to the blood-vessels by means of the 

6. Lacteals — A part of the lymphatics. 



THE BLOOD AISTD THE CIRCULATION. 135 



QUESTIONS. 

1, What is meant by the words 'life's fluid ?' 2. What happens 
if the body loses a large amount of blood ? 3. What does blood look 
like ? 4. Why does blood look red ? 5. What difference is there in 
the appearance of the blood in arteries and of that in veins ? 6. Of 
what two parts is blood composed ? 7. Are the blood-globules very 
abundant ? 8. What is a microscope ? 9. What is it used for ? 10. 
What do you see when you look at a drop of blood under the micro- 
scope ? 11. Are ajiy of the blood-globules white ? 12. What is the 
color of the blood of other animals than man ? 13. How do the 
red blood-globules in birds and fishes differ from those of human 
blood ? 14. What is the use of the red blood-globules ? 15. Of 
what gases is the air made up principally ? 16. Which is the more 
useful gas ? 17. What happens to the air when we take it into our 
lungs ? 18. What part of the blood takes oxygen from the air ? 19. 
What do the red blood-globules do with this oxygen ? 20. What do 
the tissues do with it? 21. Of what use is the fluid part of the 
blood ? 22. What is carbonic acid gas ? 23. Is it harmless or poi- 
sonous ? 24. Where is it sometimes found outside of the body ? 25. 
How can we tell that no poisonous gas exists in cellars or at the bot- 
tom of old wells ? 26. What part of the blood takes up this poison- 
ous gas from the tissues ? 27. What does the blood do with this 
poisonous gas? 28. What becomes of this poisonous gas in the 
lungs ? 29. What is the difference in color, heat, and purity of the 
blood in veins and of that in arteries ? 30. What happens if blood 
is taken from the blood-vessels and allowed to stand in the air? 31. 
What is this thickening called ? 32. What do we see when we ex- 
amine clotted blood under the microscope ? 33. Of what use is this 
clotting of the blood ? 34. What would happen when we cut our- 
selves if the blood did not clot ? 35. What is the best way of seeing 
the blood in motion? 36. What do we see when we examine the 
circulation of the blood through the thin part of the frog's foot ? 
37. What is the most important organ in the body ? 38. What is the 
shape of the heart ? 39. What surrounds the heart ? 40. About how 
long is the heart ? 41. Of what kind of tissue are the walls of the 
heart formed? 42. Where is the heart ? 43. Where can you feel the 
heart beat ? 44. If you put your ear over this spot,what do you hear ? 



136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

45. Is the heart solid or hollow ? 46. How many spaces are there in 
the heart ? 47. How is the heart divided ? 48. How are the sides 
of the heart divided ? 49. Y7hat are the upper spaces called ? 50. 
What are the lower spaces called ? 51. Which are the larger V 52. 
What is the use of the heart ? 53. What does the heart do when it 
beats? .54. How often does the heart of a grown man beat in a min- 
ute ? 55. How often does the heart of a child beat per minute ? 
56. How often does the heart of an old man beat per minute ? 57. 
How does the heart beat when we have fever? 58. Describe the 
course which the blood takes. 59. Where does the blood pass to 
from the right side of the heart ? 60. Where from the lungs ? 61. 
Where from the left side of the heart ? 62. Where from the arteries? 
63. How is the blood returned to the heart from the different parts 
of the body ? 64. Who discovered the circulation of the blood and 
when ? 65. How does the blood get from the right side of the heart 
into the lungs ? 66. After the large artery carries it to the lung, 
where does it pass to? 67. What is a capillary? 68. What hap- 
pens to the blood when it is passing through the capillaries of the 
lung ? 69. How does it change its appearance while passing through 
the capillaries of the lungs ? 70. Where does the blood pass after 
it has been purified by the lungs ? 71. Where does the purified 
blood pass to after it reaches the heart ? 72. What are the valves of 
the heart ? 73. What is their use ? 74. What three kinds of blood- 
vessels are there? 75. What is an artery? 76. What is a vein? 
77. What is a capillary? 78. Do arteries branch? 79. What is 
meant by " the pulse ? " 80. How can we feel the pulse ? 81. How 
is the pulse produced? 82. Where do we usually take the pulse, and 
why ? 83. What sets of blood-vessels are connected by the capil- 
laries ? 84. What change takes place in the blood while it is pass- 
ing through the capillaries? 85. What differences are there between 
the vein and the artery? 86. What have the veins which the arteries 
do not have? 87. Of what use are these valves? 88. How long 
does it take the blood to travel through the entire body? 89. What 
is fainting ? 90. What should you do when a person has fainted ? 
91. Why should the head be low ? 92. What should we do for 
slight bleeding ? 93. What should we do for serious bleeding which 
will not stop ? 94. What is apt to result if our circulation is slug- 
gish ? 95. What effect has exercise upon the circulation ? 96. What 
effect has too much or too violent exercise ? 97. What effect has 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 137 

alcohol on the heart ? 98. What effect has alcohol on the arteries ? 
99. What is apoplexy? 100. What effect has tobacco upon the heart? 
101. What other set of tubes is there in the body besides the arte- 
ries? 102. What are the lymphatics? 103. Of what use are the 
lymphatics ? 104. What is that portion of the lymphatics which we 
find in the abdomen called? 105. Into what do the lymphatics 
finally empty ? 



CHAPTEE IX. 

DIGESTION. 

The word digestion means the changing of the food by 
the organs in the abdomen, so as to liquefy it in order that the 
blood can take it up and make tissues out of it. Digestion 
commences in the mouth and ends in the large intestine. If 
we commence from above, the following parts are met with : 
mouth, throat, gullet, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, 
large intestine. All of these, except the pancreas and the 
.liver, are hollow organs through which the food passes. All 
of these hollow organs taken together form the alimentary 
canal. Each of the organs of digestion will now be con- 
sidered. 

THE MOUTH. 

This is the commencement of the alimentary canal (Figs. 36 
and 67) and is the cavity in which the food is chewed and 
mixed with saliva. 

The Teeth. — The chewing is done by means of the 
teeth. These are supported by the jaws and occur in two rows, 
an upper and a lower. We do not have the same teeth when 
we are grown that we had when we were very small ; all the 
the teeth of young children fall out ; they are only temporary, 
and hence are called temporary or milk teeth. There are ten of 
these in each jaw, making twenty altogether. 

In the sixth year, or before, the temporary teeth begin 
to fall out, and after the sixth year, others commence to grow 



DIGESTIOIS-. 



139 



to take their places. These are stronger than those which grow 
first, and there are more of them. They are called permanent 




Fig. 36. —Outline Sketch of the Organs of Digestion. 

teeth ; and there are sixteen in each jaw. After the sixth year, 
the other permanent teeth gradually replace the temporary ones, 



140 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

which fall out. The last tooth to appear is that placed farthest 
back, called the wisdom-tooth.; this comes about the twenty- 
first year. 

Each tooth can be divided into the part which projects 




Fig. 37. — The Upper and Lower Jaws with the Permanent Teeth. 

into the mouth, above the gums, called the croioji, the part which 
sinks into the jaw, the fang or root^ and the line between these 
two, called the neck. Teeth are composed of a very 
hard material, consisting very largely of lime, called 
dentine. They are hollow in the centre (Fig. 38) and 
this central space is filled up with a soft material 
called the pidp. On the surface of the crown is a 
covering of very hard material, formed principally 
of lime, called enamel. Each tooth is supplied with 
a small nerve which enters it through an opening 
sectk»no?6i^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^f ^^^ '^^^^' I^ IS the cxposurc of 
Teeth? ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ncrvc througli the formation of cavities in 
the teeth which most often gives rise to toothache. 
Upon examining the teeth, we find they differ greatly 
in size and shape. They are similar on the two sides of the 
mouth and are the same in the upper as in the lower jaw. In 




DIGESTIOI^. 



141 



Fig. 37 we see the teeth in position ; in Fig. 39 they are sep- 
arated, those on the right of the figure corresponding to 
the middle line, while those on the left are the back teeth. 
Commencing in the centre and proceeding toward each side 
(from right to left in Fig. 39) there are first two sharp-pointed 
teeth, having chisel-like edges, called the incisor teeth. Their 
sharp* edges are intended to cut the food and to bite it into 
pieces. Next to these is a long, pointed tooth, called the 



I Fang or Root. 





Fig. 39. — The Permanent Teeth. Above are those of the upper jaw ; below, those of the 
lower jaw. The teeth of one side of the jaw only are represented. The two teeth to the 
right are incisot's. The long tooth next to these is the canine tooth. The following two 
are bicuspids. The last three (to the left) are molars. 



canine, also known as the eye-tooth. In the dog and cat, and 
animals of this type, this tooth is of great length and sharpness, 
and is used for tearing meat. Next to the canine are two 
broader teeth having two sharp points each, known as the hi- 
cuspid teeth. Still farther back there are three large, broad 
teeth, the surface of whose crowns is very uneven, but they are 
very strong ; they are the molars and serve to grind up the 
food into small particles. 

The teeth are intended to chew the food so that it is in 
small enough particles to be received and digested by the 



142 AI^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIE:N^E. 

stomach. Hasty eating results in the swallowing of food which 
has not been chewed sufficiently, thus causing indigestion, 
pain in the stomach, and, if continued, dyspepsia (which means 
difficult digestion). 

Care of the Teeth. — Teeth are natural ornaments when 
clean and healthy ; but very disfiguring when dirty or de- 
cayed. Teeth should be brushed every morning upon rising, 
and every night before retiring ; they should be kept clean at 
all times. If particles of food lodge between the teeth, they 
should be removed with toothpicks of wood or quill ; never 
with pins, needles, or metallic points. Teeth are apt to decay 
and cavities to form, if the general health becomes poor, or if 
much improper food be taken. By improper food is meant, a 
great many pickles, much candy and cake, and food which is 
difficult to digest or too acid. Teeth should not be used to 
crack nuts with, nor for anything but chewing. When cavities 
have formed in the teeth, the dentist fills them with gold or 
silver foil to prevent them from decaying more. 

The vulgar habit of chewing tobacco discolors the 
teeth, makes the breath offensive, and injures digestion. 



THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 

We give the name glands to certain bodies, usually 
small and round, in which fluid is formed to be used in various 
ways. For instance, around the mouth there are many such 
glands, which form the saliva; that is, the fluid which con- 
stantly keeps the mouth wet, and moistens our food} hence 
these glands around the mouth are called the salivary glands. 
There are a great many of them, but most of them are very 
small. Three, however, are large and worth mentioning. 

The largest is placed in front of the lower end of the 
ear around the joint of the lower jaw, and has a small tube 
leading to the mouth. It is called the parotid gland. Another 



DIGESTION. 143 

is placed just below the tongue, and is therefore called the sub- 
lingual gland. A third is found underneath the chin on each 
side, and is called the submaxillary gland. 

These glands pour some of the saliva into the mouth 
all the time, but they are especially active when we use the 
jaws either in speaking or in eating. If it were not for this 
fluid, the mouth would soon feel dry after talking a little. In 
eating anything dry, as a cracker, we notice that enough 
fluid forms in the mouth to moisten it thoroughly and thus en- 
able us to swallow the mass. It would be difficult to swallow 
this if it were dry. When the saliva is mixed well with the 
food, the stomach can act on the food at once and digest it 
more easily. This is another reason why we should chew our 
food well. 

There is still another reason. A small part of starchy 
food is digested by the saliva before it reaches the stomach, 
thus aiding the stomach in its work of digestion. 

Effects of Chewing Gum.— The habit of con- 
stantly cliewing gum not only looks bad, but by making the 
saliva flow in large quantity all the time, it makes it thin and 
watery. Such saliva is apt to be inefficient in the proper per- 
formance of its work during meals. This habit is, therefore, 
not only vulgar, but unhealthy. 



THE THROAT. 

This is the wide part of the mouth behind, into which 
the food passes after it has been thoroughly chewed and when 
we swallow it. While we are swallowing, it passes into the 
throat. Once swallowed, the food passes into the canal leading 
to the stomach, the gullet, or oesophagus ; thence it continues 
its way without our knowledge or will (Fig. 36). 



144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

THE TONGUE. 

This is also one of the organs of digestion, since by its 
movement the food is rolled around in the mouth and mixed 
thoroughly with saliva. The tongue also assists in swallowing. 
This organ will be described under the special senses, as it is 
also the organ of taste. 

THE GULLET, OR (ESOPHAGUS. 

This is a long tube (Fig. 36) which connects the mouth 
and throat with the stomach. Its walls are formed of rings of 
muscle-tissue. When these rings contract, the food is forced 
downward until it reaches the stomach. 



THE STOMACH. 

The stomach is a bag about a foot long, placed in the 
upper part of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm. The 
latter, as has already been mentioned, is the sheet of muscle- 
tissue separating the abdomen from the chest. The stomach 
commences near the middle of the body, and then extends over 
toward the right. There are two openings into the stomach. 
One is /or the entrance of food^ which is carried by the gullet 
from the mouth ; and in order to reach the stomach, the gul- 
let must, of course, pass through the diaphragm. The other 
opening of the stomach is at the farther end, and allows the food 
to pass on into the intestines after the stomach has done its 
work. Around this opening is a narrowing which remains 
closed until the food is ready to be sent to the intestines. 
This narrowing is produced by a thickening of the tissue at 
this point, and is called the pylorus. 

The wall of the stomach is not very thick, but it is very 
strong. On the outside there is a smooth, shining coat, which 
is merely a part of a membrane lining the whole inside of the 



DIGESTION. 



145 



abdomen and the organs within it. This membrane is known as 
the peritoneum. On the inside there is a soft, velvety coat, 




Fig. 40. — The Stomach, Showing the Layer of Muscle-tissue by which it Contracts and 

Propels the Food. 



called the mucous layer (Fig. 41). We often meet with the 
term mucous membrane in anatomy. It refers to a soft, smooth, 




Fig. 41. -The Inner Surface of the Stomach, Showing the Mucous Layer Arranged in Folds. 



146 



AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIEKE. 



velvety membrane whicli is called the mucous membrane be- 
cause it forms a watery, slippery fluid called mucus ; the fluid 
from the mouth between meals, and the fluid which runs from 
the nose are examples of mucus. Between these two surfaces, 
the mucous and the peritoneum, is a layer of muscle-tissue 
which forms the main part of the thickness of the stomach 
(Fig. 40). 

Gastric Juice. — The inner, or mucous layer of the 
stomach is arranged in a series of folds which are especially 
marked when the stomach is empty. It is usually of a pink or 
a grayish color, but its color and appearance diflfer greatly, de- 
pending upon whether it contains food or not. When food 

reaches the stomach, it excites it, 
and the soft lining then begins to 
swell, and becomes reddened. This 
mucous layer, when looked at under 
the microscope, shows a large num- 
ber of small dots or openings. 
When food is in the stomach, we 
can see drops of fluid escape from 
these dot-like openings. This fluid 
is called the gastric juice. 

The Gastric Tubules 
and the Gastric Juice.— The 
gastric juice is a very important 
fluid ; and it is found in the stom- 
ach only when food is present, 
which food causes it to flow. Of 
course the lining of the stomach 
is never dry, but it is moistened 
only with mucus, except when 
excited by food, when as just stated gastric juice begins 
to flow. Upon examining this internal layer of the stomach 
under the microscope, we find thousands of small tubes, lined 
by little oblong bodies, which we call cells (Figs. 42 and 43). 




Fig. 42.— a Section of the Lining 
Membrane of the Stomach Very 
Highly Magnified, Showing the G-as- 
tric Tubules in Position. 



DIGESTIOIS'. 



147 



These cells pour the gastric juice into the small tubes, and from 
these it passes into the stomach and is mixed with the food. 
But, it may be asked, from what do these cells take the gastric 
juice? They get it from the blood. There are tiny blood- 
vessels everywhere, and certain portions of the blood pass 
through the walls of the blood-vessels into the cells, 
and are mixed there with other substances ; and in 
this way the gastric juice results. 

Pepsin. — The substance in the gastric juice 
which enables it to digest fleshy food is called pepsin. 

Function of the Gastric Juice- — The 
work of the gastric juice is to digest food. But it 
does not digest every sort of food. It loill digest only 
fleshy food. Vegetable food is digested elsewhere — 
a little by the saliva, but chiefly in the small intes- 
tine. Fat, also, remains undigested in tlie stomach, 
and passes on to be digested in the small intestine. 

(1.) Uses of the Stomach.— One of the 
uses we have just stated, namely, to digest the fleshy 
part of the food. 

(2.) The second use of the stomach is to be a 
storehouse for the food. It takes between two and 
three hours to digest an ordinary meal. If there tX"i1 ^^^*^ 
were no large bag in which the food could be kept 
until digested we should have to keep eating little by little all 
the time. The large size of the stomach also allows the gastric 
juice to be mixed quickly and thoroughly with the food, and 
thus digestion takes place more quickly than it otherwise would. 

(3.) Still another use of the stomach is to churn the 
food, and to roll it about so as to grind it into the smallest 
particles and mix it with the gastric juice. One of the coats of 
the stomach consists of muscle-tissue, and this coat causes these 
motions of the stomach. Besides, the lining of the stomach has 
a large number of raised lines or ridges (Fig. 41), which make 
the breaking-up of the food still easier. 



148 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AISTD HYGIENE. 

Some of the lower animals, as the ox and cow, have four 
stomachs. Such animals swallow grass and hay without thor- 
oughly chewing them. Afterward this food passes back into 
the mouth. It is then chewed over again, swallowed, and 
after passing through the series of stomachs, is finally di- 
gested. 

The Discovery of How the Stomach A^cts. — Many 
years ago, a Canadian named St. Martin w^as shot in the ab- 
domen. He recovered with a permanent opening leading 
from the outside into the stomach, through which the doctors 
could watch and see what happened after eating. They found 
that ordinarily it took the stomach from tioo to three hours to 
finish its work, and to discharge what it could not digest into 
the small intestine or bowel. This man lived a great many 
years with the curious opening, and was quite strong and 
healthy. 

Certain kinds of food require a longer time than other 
kinds for digestion, and hence we call them heavy or indiges- 
tible ; other food is digested very quickly, and is called light, 
or easily digestible. As examples of heavy food may be men- 
tioned, hard-*boiled eggs, pies, cheese, etc. As examples of 
easily digested food, there are milk, soft-boiled eggs, toast, 
broiled steak, etc. 

Effect of Alcoholic Drinks upon the Stomach and 
the Digestion. — Animals seem to know by instinct what is 
good for them to eat ; they leave poisonous leaves and berries 
alone. But human beings have to learn by experience. The 
stomach, however, seems to have an instinct of its own, and 
if something is taken into it that is not good for food, the 
muscles in the walls will usually contract and push it violent- 
ly out by the act of vomiting. A person can take enough 
alcohol to kill him in a few hours, but the stomach generally 
throws it up. This is what usually hapj^ens when a boy takes 
strong drink for the first time. 

People often seem to have less sense than dumb animals, 



DIGESTION. 149 

for although their own experience tells them that alcohol is 
poisonous, they will still persist in drinking it. The reason is 
because when they have begun taking it habitually they feel 
so restless and miserable without it that they must keep on. 
Anyone who wishes to have a strong stomach and good diges- 
tion all through life should heed the experience of others and 
avoid^ all alcoholic beverages. Six hundred physicians have 
testified that, according to their experience, the moderate 
use of strong drink is always unhealthy, even when the body 
is in a healthy condition. They say it does not do any good 
to the digestion, but interferes with that process, and evils 
which are usually attributed to other causes, often result from 
the habitual use of these drinks even by moderate drinkers. 

Most people form the drinking habit slowly, and begin 
with small drinks, which they take to "warm them up," or to 
"ward off a cold," as they say, or because they are "treated." 
They do not take enough to produce nausea. The effect on 
the stomach is a warm, tingling sensation, which is not true 
warmth, but in reality a smarting, the same as when arnica, 
which is largely alcohol, is put on a cut. The thin, mucous 
membrane is reddened, because of the amount of blood drawn 
to the walls of the stomach. The alcohol causes the little 
blood-vessels to become congested. It hardens their walls 
and makes it difiicult for them to absorb liquid. This does 
not happen all at once, but it goes on gradually with each 
small drink taken into the stomach. Nor is this all ; if con- 
tinued, the walls of the stomach become bright red instead of 
pink in color, and grow darker and darker red as the conges- 
tion of the blood-vessels increases. Catarrh of the stomach is 
a common result. 

Chemical experiments in a test tube show that the action 
of alcohol on the digestive fluids is to destroy the effect of its 
active principle, the pepsin. This takes place in two ways, 
first by hardening the food, so that the gastric juice cannot 
separate it into small particles, and second by coagulating the 



150 Al^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIS^D HYGIENE. 

pepsin, which is the part that digests the food. To what ex- 
tent this takes place in the stomach is not definitely known ; 
but experiments in actual stomach digestion have shown that 
that process goes on very slowly, if at all, so long as the alco- 
hol remains in the stomach, and that even small quantities of 
alcoholic drinks, such as have been supposed to ''aid diges- 
tion," really prolong the process. When larger quantities 
are taken the food remains in lumps, which are apt to fer- 
ment. Sometimes it is passed off into the intestines in this 
condition, where it always does mischief, and sometimes it is 
thrown up out of the stomach. Naturally a stomach that has 
been treated so badly does not want any more food for sev- 
eral days. This is seen in a person who has been intoxicated. 
He has no appetite, but has intense burning headache and 
nausea, and must rest for a time just as if he had had an at- 
tack of illness. 

Effect of Tobacco on the Digestion. — Tobacco, if 
taken into the stomach, is a severe poison, but people seldom 
die of it ; it acts as an emetic, and thus the stomach gets rid of 
the poison. Inhaling tobacco-smoke also produces vomiting. 
This is why boys when they first begin to smoke are made sick 
at the stomach. Men, when they chew tobacco do not swal- 
low the saliva containing the juice, for they would be made 
sick ; therefore they are obliged to get rid of it in some other 
way, and so form the filthy and vulgar habit of spitting. 

The poison in tobacco is called nicotine. Its effect is to 
paralyze the nerves and the muscles. In smoking, a very 
little nicotine is taken into the system, just enough to *' soothe 
the nerves," the smoker says ; but in reality enough to slightly 
paralyze them. It also paralyzes those muscles of the stom- 
ach that constantly turn the food over and over ; therefore di- 
gestion is hindered. Physicians meet with thousands of cases 
of dyspepsia that have arisen from the use of tobacco ; and 
a smoking man who consults a physician for dyspepsia is 
generally told that he must give up his cigars or cigarettes. 



DIGESTIOlSr. 151 



THE BOWELS, OR INTESTINES. 

These consist of a long, hollow tube, about twenty-five 
feet long, commencing at the stomach (Fig. 36). Where stom- 
ach and intestines meet is a narrow opening, which is closed, 
except when the stomach has digested what it can of the food, 
and wishes to empty what is left into the intestines. 

This narrowing is called, as has already been mentioned, 
the pylorus^ meaning gatekeeper, and it will be seen that it is 
well-named, for it guards the outlet of the stomach. The rem- 
nants of food which the stomach refuses to digest pass this 
point in the form of a soft, creamy mass. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE INTESTINES. 

The intestines can be divided into three parts ;'the first 
part, which is next to the stomach, is called the duodenum, a 
long word, which was given to it in olden times because it is 
about as long as twelve fingers put side by side, so that this 
part of the bowel is quite short. The second part is very long 
— twenty feet — and forms the principal part of the bowels. It 
is called the small intestine^ and the word small is used because 
it is narrower than the rest. The remainder of the bowels 
(about five feet long) is the last portion, called the large intes- 
tine, because it is wider than the rest. 

The intestines are twenty-five feet long. In order that 
they may be contained in the abdomen they are folded together 
many times around a stem which is attached to the backbone. 
In this way they can move around somewhat, and yet they are 
kept in place by being held to the backbone. It will be seen 
later why it is necessary that they should be allowed a certain 
amount of motion so as to cause the food to move on. 

The intestines have the same coats as the stomach. 



152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

There is on the outside a smooth, shining coat (the peritoneum). 
On the inside is a soft, smooth, velvety coat (the mucous 
coat). Between these two there is a coat formed of muscle- 
fibres, which run around the intestine in circles. There is 
much less muscle-tissue in the walls of the intestine than in 
those of the stomach. 

The Peritoneum. — The shiniDg outside coat of the 
intestine is very important, and is formed of the same layer of 
tissue that lines the whole abdomen. The whole inside of the 
abdomen and the outside of all the organs wdthin it are covered 
with this smooth sheet of tissue which we call the ijeritoneum. 
This covering is necessary so that the organs can move one 
upon another without pain, injury, or friction. The smooth 
surface is always kept moist by fluid. 

Motion of the Intestines- — The intestines are never 
quiet. They are in motion all the time. This motion resem- 
bles that of a worm, slow, gradual, and creeping. It is ac- 
complished by means of the muscle-fibres which exist in the 
walls. The object of this motion is to propel the food along 
so as to spread it out and hasten the absorption of the liquid 
and nourishing portions of the digested food. 

Projections on the Inner Surface of the Intes- 
tines, — The inner surface of the intestines looks pinkish and 
is velvety. It has a large number of valves or ridges (Fig. 44) 
running across it, wdiich prevent the food from passing along 
too rapidly, so that all the nutritious portions may be absorbed. 
Besides these projections we find that the velvety appearance 
is due to the presence of millions of other very small projections 
(Fig. 45), which resemble hairs in shape, but are soft, and 
when looked at with the microscope are found covered with 
cells. We also find, when w^e examine the mucous lining of 
the intestines, a great many small tubes similar to those found 
in the stomach. 

The Work of the Intestines. — The intestines finish 
the digestion of the food. They also afford a lengthy surface 



DIGESTIOIS'. 



153 



over which the liquid and digested nutritiuas parts of the food 
can pass and be absorbed by the blood, which then brings them 
to different parts of the body. We found that a small part of 
starchy food is digested by the saliva and that the stomach di- 
gests the fleshy portions of the food. The intestines digest the 
rest,, namely : (1) the larger part of starchy food which is not 
affected by the saliva, (2) the entire fatty portion of the food, 
and (3) any remnants of fleshy food whieh the stomach may 
have failed to act upon. 

Starch cannot be taken up by the blood until it has 





Fig. 44.— The Inner Surface of the Small 
Intestine, Showing the Valves or Ridges. 



Fig. 45. — The Small Hair-like Projections 
from the Inner Surface of the Intestine. 
(Very highly magnified.) 



become chayiged into sugar. Fat must also first become al- 
tered by fluids in the intestines before the blood can absorb 
it. 

Openings into the Small Intestine.— The main 
work of the intestine takes place at the upper part near the 
stomach. Just below the stomach we find two openings leading 
into the part of the intestine known as the duodenum. One 
of these openings is the canal from the liver and the gall bladder^ 



154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

the other is the canal from the pancreas. Previous to discussing 
digestion in general, the organs furnishing these two canals 
will be considered. 



THE LIVER AND THE GALL-BLADDER. 




Fig. 46. — The Liver, Upper Surface. 



The liver (Figs. 36, 46, and 47) is a large organ of a 
brownish color, placed in the upper part of the abdomen, to the 
right of the stomach. It is just below the diaphragm and the 




Fig. 47.— The Liver, Under Surface ; Below, the Gall-bladder is Seen. 

lower ribs, which cover it in front and above by forming an arch 
over it. The liver is very heavy j it is smooth on the outside, 



DIGESTION. 



166 



and covered by the same smooth, membrane which covers all the 
organs of the abdomen, viz., the peritoneum. It is subdivided 
by deep Hnes into five sections called lobes. 

Uses of the Liver. — The liver is a very important 
organ. Its uses are, 

(1.) To make the bile. 

(2.) To purify the blood which passes through it. 

(3.) To add a certain nourishing body to the blood which 
passes through it. 

The Gall-bladder and Bile. — If we look at the liver 
under the microscope, so that it is very much enlarged, we shall 
see that it is formed entirely of 
small cells, like cubes, packed one 
against another (Fig. 48). These 
cells manufacture the bile, which is 
then collected by small tubes. 
Along the lower edge of the liver a 
bag about the size of an egg will be 
seen. This is called the gall-bladder 
(Figs. 36 and 47), and the tubes which 
collect the bile empty into it. This 
bag keeps the bile until it is Avanted. 
The liver is making bile all the time and yet the intestines do 
not need it except when food is present ; hence there must be 
such a storehouse. 

Action of the Bile. — After the stomach has finished 
its work and the changed food has passed into the intestine, 
the bile which has been stored up in the gall-bladder is allowed 
to escape into the intestine by a small tube leading to one of 
the two openings in the duodenum already described. The 
bile is of a green or brown color. We do not know precisely 
what the bile does to the food ; but we are certain that bile 
must be mixed with it, for if it is absent a person cannot live 
very long. Sometimes bile gets into the blood and causes a 
yellow color of the skin, which we cdi)! jaundice. 




Fig. 



. — The Liver-cells, Very 
Highly Magnified. 



156 Ai^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AT^D HYGIEI^E. 

There is a great deal of blood passing through the liver, 
which {^purified in its passage by the removal of certain un- 
healthy substances. 

After a meal there would be a great deal of nourishing 
matter thrown into the blood all at once ; and this would soon 
be used up, and then there would be no more until the next 
meal. In order to prevent this, the liver takes care of a large 
amount of sugar and keejjs it stored ujj, and then gradually lets 
it return little by little into the blood. 

Effect of Alcoholic Drinks upon the Liver. — A 
drunkard's liver, examined after death, always shows the 
effects of this poison. The liver becomes thoroughly diseased, 
and a portion of its tissue changed into fat, as a result of 
which the cells of the changed part no longer secrete bile. 
This disease is called "Fatty Degeneration of the Liver." It 
causes the liver to decrease in size. 

Another disease is called hob-nailed liver, or gin -liver. 
The liver becomes puckered and yellow with bile, and the per- 
son has dropsy or swelling in the feet This disease is very 
common among drunkards, but very few others have it. 

A person who is not a drunkard but who drinks a little 
liquor every day regularly is liable to have his liver out of 
order. He is apt to be bilious or constipated, or have trouble 
with his digestion, which means that the liver is not secreting 
the bile as it should. 



THE PANCREAS. 

This is one of the organs of digestion (Fig. 36). The 
pancreas of the calf is sold by the butcher as sweetbread. This 
organ is not large, but is very important. It is placed just 
below the stomach. Its work is to prepare a fluid called the 
pancreatic juice. This is made by cells, just as in the liver. 
Small tubes then collect the fluid and open into one large 



DIGESTIOlSr. 157 

tube which empties into the commencement of the small in- 
testine. 

Uses of the Pancreatic Juice. — The pancreatic 
juice digests all parts of the food which are left after the saliva 
and the gastric juice of the stomach have acted upon them. 
Thus it digests fat and starch, and it will also digest any of 
the fleshy food which the stomach has neglected to change. It 
is consequently a very important fluid. 

ABSORPTION. 

All the fluids of digestion just described — the saliva, 
gastric juice, and pancreatic juice — simply change the chewed 
food, so that the blood can take it up or absorb it as nourish- 
ment ; and this action of these fluids is called digestion. There 
still remains to be seen how the blood absorbs this nourish- 
ment, and what it does with it. 

If we look at one of the smallest blood-vessels (Fig. 53) 
it will be found that the walls consist of the very thinnest 
membrane, and that this allows fluids to pass through quite 
readily. In the lining of the stomach and intestines we find a 
great many of these tiny blood-vessels ; as the food reaches 
these places and has become digested, it passes into the blood- 
vessels and is carried with the blood to the different parts of 
the body, to be used in forming and building up tissues which 
are constantly being consumed. 

Lacteal S. — Besides passing directly into the blood- 
vessels, the digested food also passes into certain other tubes 
of very small size, like blood-vessels, except that they do not 
contain blood. These small tubes are called lacteals, from a 
Latin word meaning milk, because the nourishing fluid which 
they carry and afterward add to th,e blood looks white, like 
milk, during digestion. These lacteals finally empty into large 
veins at the lower part of the neck (Fig. 62). 



158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

HABITS WHICH ARE INJURIOUS TO PROPER DIGESTION. 

(1.) Eating too rapidly. When the food is eaten too 
rapidly it cannot be chewed properly, and the result is that it 
is swallowed in large pieces. The stomach has great difficulty 
in digesting these large pieces and thus indigestion and dyspep- 
sia result if the practice be continued. 

(2.) Eating too much at a time. This gives the organs 
of digestion too much work to do, and on this account all the 
food cannot be digested. We should not continue to eat until 
we feel heavy and uncomfortable, but should stop before we 
feel this way. 

(3.) Eatifig too many sweets and sours. While a pickle 
occasionally at meals, or candy and cake now and then, will do 
no harm, if these things are taken constantly they are injurious, 
because they destroy the appetite for nourishing food. 

(4.) Chewing gum gives the salivary glands too much 
work, and thus the saliva soon becomes too thin and does not 
act as it should. 

(5.) A large amount ofice-ioater. A little ice-water, taken 
slowly, will do no harm, whether during meals or at other times ; 
but to drink down a gobletful rapidly when the body is heated 
is very unhealthy, as it chills the stomach and delays diges- 
tion. 

(6.) Violent exercise immediately after a meal. This 
should not be indulged in, for at that time the stomach needs 
all the blood it can get ; and violent exercise drives too great a 
proportion to the muscles. 

(7.) Severe brai7i work directly after meals is not good. 

(8.) Bathing should not be indulged in within two hours 
after an ordinary meal. 

(9.) Excitement of any kind, as good news or bad news 
just before a meal, usually takes away our appetite. If we eat, 
nevertheless, the food will not be digested, or only very imper- 
fectly. 



BIGESTIOK. 159 

(10.) Alcoholic drink makes food less digestible, espe- 
cially if it be strong drink ; and it also irritates the stomach 
needlessly. 

(11.) Smoking will destroy the appetite and interfere 
with digestion in many persons. 

THE SPLEEN. 

The spleen (Fig. 36) is not one of the organs of diges- 
tion ; but its description will be given at this place, because it 
is placed in the abdomen. It i-s a round, flattened organ, solid, 
and contains a great deal of blood. It is found on the left 
side of the abdomen just underneath the lower ribs. Its use 
is not exactly known ; but lately, however, it has been thought 
to take part in supplying the globules to the blood. It be- 
comes enlarged in all malarial diseases, and then sometimes 
reaches an enormous size. 

SYNOPSIS. 



Digestion — The changing of the food and its liquefaction, 
the blood can absorb it. 


so that 


Organs 


of Digestion : 


Month. 
Teeth. 










Salivary Glands. 

Tongue. 

Throat. 








Gullet. 










Stomach. 


r Duodenum. 




- 




Intestines. 


< Small Intestine. 
' Large Intestine. 





Liver. 
Pancreas. 
Month — To chew the food and mix it with saliva. 

a. Tongue — Assists in mixing food with saliva and in 
swallowing. 

b. Teeth: 
Temporary or milk teeth — ten in each jaw. 
Permanent — sixteen in each jaw. 



]:: 



160 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Four incisors. 
Two canine. 
Four bicuspid. 
Six molars. 

2. Divisible into 

( Crown. 

a. Parts : < Neck. 

( Boot. 
r Enamel. 

b. Structure : ■< Dentine. 

( Pulp (cavity). 

3. Care of — Should be kept clean. 

Brushing. 
Toothpicks. 
Improper use. 
Tobacco. 
c. Salivary Glands : 

1. Location : 

(1.) Parotid — In front and below ear. 
(2.) Sublingual — Below tongue. 
(3.) Submaxillary — Below jaw. 

2. Saliva. 

(1.) Produced during chewing. 
(2.) Moistens food. 
(3.) Digests a part of starchy food. 
(4.) Keeps mouth moist. 
(5.) Watery, clear fluid. 
(6.) Necessity for thorough chewing. 
(7.) Effect of chewing gum. 
Throat : 

1. Between mouth and gullet. 

2. Concerned in swallowing. 
Tongue : 

1. Mixes food with saliva. 

2. Assists in swallowing. 

3. Organ of taste. 
Gullet or (Esophagus : 

1. Connects throat and stomach. 

2. Formed of rings of muscle-tissue. 

3. These force food into stomach. 



DIGESTIOK. 161 

Stomach : 

1. Position — Upper part of abdomen, just below dia- 
phragm. 

2. Openings — One for entrance of food ; other (pylorus) 
into intestines. 

3. Coats : 

(1.) Outer — Peritoneum. 
(2.) Middle— Muscle-tissue. 
(3.) Inner — Mucous membrane. 

4. Uses : 

(1.) To secrete gastric juice, which — 
a. Is formed during digestion. 
h. Digests fleshy food. 

c. Contains pepsin. 

d. Is formed in the gastric tubules. 
(2.) A storehouse for the food. 

(3. ) To churn the food and break it into small particles. 

5. Effects of alcohol and tobacco — Alcohol irritates, to- 
bacco sickens. 

6. Discovery of action — St. Martin ; opening in stomach. 

7. Digestibility — Heavy and light food. 
The Intestines : 

1. Connection with stomach — By pylorus. 

2. Subdivisions: 

a. Duodenum. 

h. Small intestine. 

c. Large intestine. 

3. Length — Twenty-five feet. 

4. Attachment — To backbone. 

5. Coats — Same as stomach : 

a. Outer or peritoneum. 
h. Middle or muscle tissue. 
c. Inner or mucous membrane. 

6. Motion — To propel food and digested fluids. 

7. Projections from inner surface : 

a. Valves or ridges. 

h. Hair-like projections. 

8. Function : 

a. Digest starchy food. 



162 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

h. Digest fatty food, 
c. Digest remnants of fleshy food. 
9. Openings : 

a. From liver and gall-bladder. 

b. From pancreas. 
The Liver and Gall-bladder : 

1. Position — Upper part of abdomen, to right of stom- 
ach. 

2. Description — Large, solid, brownish, subdivided into 
five sections or lobes. 

3. Uses: 

a. To make bile. 

J). To purify the blood. 

c. To add nourishment to the blood ; storehouse. 

4. Bile : 

a. Color — Greenish or brownish. 

b. Action — Not exactly known. 

c. If gets into blood — Jaundice. 

5. Unhealthy Liver — From too rich food, alcoholic drinks, 
too little exercise ; Gout. 

6. Drunkard's Liver — Too large or too small. 
The Pancreas : 

1. Position — Just below stomach. 

2. Use — To form pancreatic juice, which — 

a. Digests fat. 

b. Digests starch. 

c. Digests remains of fleshy food. 

Absorption — The taking up of digested food in fluid form by the 
blood and lymphatics : 

1. By blood-vessels. 

2. By lymphatic vessels. 

3. By lacteals. 

Habits Injurious to Proper Digestion : 

1. Eating too quickly. 

2. Eating too much at a time. 

3. Eating too many sweets and sours. 

4. Chewing gum. 

5. Ice-water in large amount. 

6. Violent exercise immediately after meals. 



DIGESTIOIT. 



163 



7. Severe brain-work immediately after meals. 

8. Bathing after meals. 

9. Excitement before, during, or after meals. 

10. Alcoholic drink. 

11. Smoking or chewing tobacco. 
The Spleen : 

- 1. Description— Eound, flattened, solid organ full of blood. 

2. Position — Left side of abdomen, underneath lower ribs. 

3. Use — Probably to supply globules to the blood. 

4. Enlarged — In malarial diseases. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by the word digestion? 2. Name the organs 
of digestion ? 3. What are the teeth for ? 4. W^hat are the tem- 
porary teeth ? 5. When do we begin to have our permanent teeth? 
6. How many permanent teeth are there in each jaw ? 7. What are 
the parts of each tooth? 8. Are the teeth solid or hollow? 9. 
What names are given to the different teeth ? 10. Which are the 
incisor teeth, what is their shape and their use ? 11. What is pecu- 
liar about the canine tooth? 12. What about the bicuspid teeth ? 
13. What about the molar teeth ? 14. Of which three parts does 
each tooth consist ? 15. What is the proper way of taking care of 
the teeth ? 16. What effect has tobacco on the teeth ? 17. What 
are the salivary glands ? 18. Where are they found ? 19. What is 
their use ? 20. What is saliva ? 21. What are the uses of saliva ? 
22. What are the effects of chewing gum upon the saliva ? 23. 
Where is the gullet ? 24. Where does it lead to ? 25. What is the 
shape of the stomach? 26. Where is it placed? 27. What open- 
ings are there in the stomach ? 28. What coats are there to the 
wair of the stomach ? 29. How does the inside of the stomach look 
when it is empty? 30. How does it look when food enters the 
stomach ? 31. What is the gastric juice ? 32. How is the gastric 
juice made ? 33. Of what use is the gastric juice ? 34. When does 
the gastric juice flow ? 35. What kind of food is digested by the 
gastric juice? 36. What is pepsin ? 37. What are the three uses 
of the stomach ? 38. Have any animals more than one stomach ? 
39. How does the ox digest hay? 40. What effects have tobacco 
and alcohol upon the stomach? 41. How was the way in which the 



164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AJSD HYGIENE. 

stomach acts in man discovered ? 42. What is meant by heavy 
food? 43. What is meant by light food? 44. Give examples of 
each. 45. What is another name for the bowels ? 46. How long 
are the bowels ? 47. How do the bowels connect with the stomach ? 
48. What kinds of food are still undigested when they leave the 
stomach? 49. What is the pylorus? 50. Into what three parts 
can the intestines be divided ? 51. What is the name given to each 
part ? 52. How are the intestines arranged so that they can all find 
room in the abdomen ? 53. To what are the intestines attached ? 
54. What coats have the intestines ? 55. What can you say about 
the outside shining coat of the intestines? 56. What is the peri- 
toneum, and what does it cover? 57. Tell about the lining of the 
intestines. 58. What is the work of the intestines? 59. What 
kinds of food are digested by the small intestine ? 60. In what part 
of the small intestine does most of the w^ork take j)lace ? 61. What 
openings are there into the first part of the small intestine? 62. 
Where is the liver placed ? 63. What are the three uses of the 
liver? 64. Where is the gall-bladder? 65. How is bile made? 
66. What does it look like? 67. When is bile needed in the intes- 
tine ? 68. How does the bile get into the intestine ? 69. What 
can you say of the uses of bile? 70. What is jaundice? 71. 
How does the liver become diseased? 72. What is the cause of 
gout ? 73. What effect has alcohol upon the liver ? 74. Where is 
the pancreas? 75. What is it commonly called by the butcher? 
76. What fluid is produced by the pancreas ? 77. What are the uses 
of the pancreatic juice ? 78. What kinds of food are digested by the 
pancreatic juice ? 79. How does the blood take up the nourishing 
parts of the food which have become digested ? 80. What are the 
lacteals, what do they do, and w^hy are they so-called? 81. Are 
the intestines usually quiet or in motion ? 82. Why is it necessary 
for them to be in motion ? 83. Mention some of the habits which 
are injurious to digestion ? 84. Explain why eating too quickly or 
too much at a time is injurious. 85. How should ice-water be 
taken ? 86. Why should we not exercise directly after meals ? 87. 
What effect has excitement of any kind upon digestion ? 88. What 
effect have alcohol and alcoholic drinks upon digestion ? 89. Where 
is the spleen? 90. What does it look like? 91. What do we know 
about its use ? 



OHAPTEE X. 

^ THE ORGANS OF VOICE AND BREATHING. 

Another name for breathing is respiring, and hence the 
act of breathing is called respiration. When air is taken into 
the lungs we breathe in or inspire ; when the air passes out 
again, we breathe out or ExspiVa 

Course of the Inspired Air. — When we inspire, 
the air first passes through the nose, then into the throat, next 
into the sound-producing organ in the neck, the larynx, then 
it passes through a tube running down the front of the neck, 
called the trachea or windpipe, which leads to the lungs. 

Each one of these parts will require special study. The 
nose will be left until the study of the sense of smell is taken 
up. The throat has already been discussed in the chapter on 
digestion (Chapter VI.). 

THE ORGAN OF VOICE— THE LARYNX. 

The organ which produces sound is called the larynx. 
Form and Situation of the Larynx.— The larynx is 

a triangular box (Figs. 63 and 69) the walls of which are formed 
of ■gristle, or cartilage. It is placed at the upper and front part 
of the neck, and can readily be felt as a hard prominence just 
below the chin. 

Parts of the Larynx. — The larynx is formed of sev- 
eral pieces of cartilage joined together. The principal part is 
formed by a large triangular piece which is prominent and 
pointed in front, and can be felt beneath the skin. This 



166 



AIN^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



pointed portion is called Adam's apple, and is larger in men 
than in women, and in some persons it stands out very mucii. 




Fig. 68.— The Larynx, the Trachea or Windpipe, and the Bronchi, 



Just above this triangular cartilage of the larynx, and covering 
up its upper opening somev^bat, is another piece of cartilage, 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AISTD BREATHING. 167 

called the epiglottis. Below the triangular cartilage is a circu- 
lar piece of cartilage which resembles a seal-ring in shape. 
These three pieces of cartilage, the triangular, the circular, and 
the epiglottis, form the main part of the larynx, though there 
are a few smaller pieces. 

Epiglottis. — This is the name given to the piece of 
cartilage, shaped like a leaf, which covers over the top of the 
larynx when we swallow. Usually it stands up straight, but in 
swallowing it is pressed down over the top of the larynx, and 
then the food slides over it into the gullet. If it be remem- 
bered that the larynx is placed in front, and that the food must 
pass across it (Fig. 67), it will be seen how important such an 
arrangement is ; but as will soon be explained, there is an- 
other way in which the food is prevented from going into the 
larynx and windpipe. 

The Vocal Cords. — If we look into the larynx, we 
shall find that there is a shelf projecting on each side (Figs. 64, 
Qb, and Q6) and that these two shelves can be moved ; some- 
times they move toward the middle and meet each other, at 
other times they separate, and then there is a large space be- 
tween them. These are called the vocal cords, because they 
produce the voice-sounds by their motion. 

Protecting the Windpipe. —The vocal cords are 
found at the upper part of the larynx ; when they come to- 
gether tightly, they close the larynx completely, so that noth- 
ing can pass into it. This is what they do whenever any food 
or solid body tries to get into the larynx or windpipe. It will 
be seen how necessary this is, for otherwise we should always be 
in danger of being choked. Sometimes the food is swallowed 
unexpected^, and the vocal cords forget to close ; then we say 
the food has gone down the wrong tvay. This is very distress- 
ing, causing coughing until the piece of food is dislodged. In 
speaking or laughing during meals, care should be taken that 
the mouth be not full, otherwise this accident may happen. 

The Vocal Cords in Breathing. — When v^e inspire, 



168 



AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



the vocal cords separate widely, so as to let the air pass readily 
into the windpipe and into our lungs (Fig. 64). When the air 
passes out {expiration), the vocal cords again come together, but 




Fig. 66. 



FiG«?. 64, 65, and 66.— Showing the Position of the Vocal Cords in Breathing and in Using 
the Voice. In Fig. 64 the cords are widely separated, as they are in inspiration; in Fig. 
65 the cords are slightly separated, as they are in expiration; in Fig. 66 the cords are 
brought together closely, as they are when sounds are produced. 



not tightly, there being still some space left between the two 
(Fig. 65). 

How Sounds are Produced. — Previous to making 
a sound we usually take a deep breath. Then this air is blown 
out again, and as it passes through the larynx, between the 
vocal cords, it makes these vibrate, and through the r^pid mo- 



THE ORaAlS^S OF VOICE AND BREATHING. 169 

tion of the vocal cords, sound is produced. There are many 
differences in the quality of the human voice, being coarse in 
some, sweet in others, high in some, low in others. Then there 
are other peculiarities of the voice, by which we recognize our 
friends by hearing them speak. 

It depends very much upon how the vocal cords are 
placed what kind of sound is produced. If the vocal cords 
are brought closely together and are made very tight the 
sound will be high. If you could look into the larynx of a lady 
with a soprano voice, while she is singing, you would find 
the vocal cords very close together ; if, on the contrary, the 
sound is produced while the cords are further apart and less 
tense, the sound will be low, like that of a bass voice. 

Speaking. — Although sound is produced in the larynx, 
it is changed by other parts, principally the throat, the mouth, 
the tongue, and the lips. These change the sound so that 
words are spoken. With the vocal cords alone we could make 
sounds as in singing ; but to speak, we must change these 
sounds by means of the parts already mentioned. For in- 
stance, in pronouncing the word paper, the manner in which 
the lips come together will be noticed ; if the word law be 
pronounced, the tongue will touch the top of the mouth. 

THE TRACHEA, OR WINDPIPE. 

Situation and Form. — If the finger be passed along 
the front of the neck, from the larynx downward, a hard tube 
can be felt and traced down to the top of the breast-bone ; and 
then it can no longer be felt, for it passes behind this bone into 
the chest. This hollow tube is called the windpipe, or trachea 
(Fig. 63). It serves to conduct the air to the lungs, after it has 
passed through the nostrils, nasal passages, throat, and larynx. 

The Air-passage and the Food-passage. — The 
existence of another tube running along the middle of the neck 
— the oesophagus or gullet — has already been mentioned in the 



170 AIS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIEN^E. 



chapter on Digestion. Its purpose is to carry the food to 
the stomach after it has been chewed in the mouth and 

swallowed. The windpipe is 
placed in front of the gullet 
(Fig. 67) ; and both of these 
tubes pass into the chest. The 
windpipe then passes to the 
lungs. The gullet passes 
through an opening in the dia- 
phragm and connects with the 
stomach in the abdomen. 

Rings of the Wind- 
p i pe . — T h e w i n d p i p e is 
formed of a large number of 
rings of gristle, joined together 
by a thin membrane (Fig. 63). 
Branching of the 
Windpipe.— After having 
passed into the chest for a 
short distance, the windpipe 
divides into two smaller tubes (Figs. 63 and 69). These 
branches are called the bronchi, there being two of them, a 
right and a left bronchus. Each carries the air from the wind^ 
pipe to the corresponding lung, the right bronchial tube natu- 




FiG. 67.— The Air-passage and the Food- 
passage. The heavy line indicates the course 
of the food through mouth and gullet ; the 
dotted line shows the course of air through 
nostril into pharynx, and then into the lar- 
ynx and trachea, which are placed in front of 
the gullet. 



rally 
side. 



passing to the right lung, and the left to the other 



THE LUNGS. 



The lungs are the organs with which we breathe. There 
is (Figs. 68 and 69) a right lung and a left lung. Between these 
two the heart is placed (Fig. 68). The lungs and the heart fill 
up the entire space in the chest. 

Shape of the Lungs.— Each lung is shaped some- 
what like a coue, with the apex above and the base below (Fig, 



THE OKGAIN^S OF VOICE AND BREATHING. 171 

69). The Inngs are very light and contain a great deal of air, 
and float when placed on water. Even after squeezing out all 
the air we can, there will still be a considerable quantity re- 
maining in the lung. 

Structure of the Lungs. —If we cut into the lungs, 
vve find they are formed of a large number of tubes and 



Fig. 68.— The Heart and Lungs. On each side the hmgs are seen ; in the centre is the 
heart ; above are the windpipe and the large blood-vessels passing to and from the heart. 



spaces containing air. After entering the lungs, each bron- 
chus divides again and again (Fig. 69), each branch, known 
as a bronchial tube, becoming smaller, until finally the 
branches of each bronchial tube have become so small that 
thev can no longer be seen without the microscope (Fig. 
70/a). 



172 



ANAT03IY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 69.— The Larynx, Trachea, Right and Left Bronchus, and the Lungs. The latter have 
been cut open to show the method of division and subdivision of the bronchi. 



The Air-Ve sic I es- — The 

smallest branch of a bronchus (Fig. 
70, a) swells so as to end in a lit- 
tle bag containing air, called an air- 
space (Fig. 70, 6). The walls of these 
air-spaces are again subdivided so 
as to form a large number of small 
sacs called air-vesicles. The walls of 
these air-vesicles are very thin and 
contain many blood-vessels. From 
this description it will be seen that 
the lungs really consist of a great 
collection of small sacs or spaces filled 
with air. 




Fig. 70.— The Air-vesicles, a, 
The smallest branch of the sub- 
divisions of a bronchial tube : b, 
the dilated passage or air-space^ 
into which this expands ; c, the 
smallest spaces, air-vesicles. 



THE OEGANS OF VOICE Al^D BEEATHING. 173 

The Pleura. — Upon tbeir surface the lungs are cov- 
ered with a sheet of smooth membrane, called the pleura, which 
also lines the inner surface of the chest. This smooth mem- 
brane allows the lungs to rub against the wall of the chest 
without pain or friction. The pleura resembles the peritoneum 
of Jihe abdomen and serves a similar purpose. 

Breathing is Involuntary.— Like the beating of the 
heart, breathing takes place without the use of our will-power. 
It continues whether we are awake or asleep, and even when 
we are unconscious. It is possible to breathe faster than 
usual for a little while, or to hold the breath for a very short 
period, but these are merely temporary changes which cannot 
be continued, for breathing is not under the control of the 
will. 

Movements of the Chest in Breathing. — In in- 
spiration air is taken in which passes to the lungs and expands 
them. Watching the chest while this is taking place, it is 
found that the ribs rise and that the chest becomes wider. In 
expiration, the air is allowed to pass from the lungs, these be- 
coming smaller ; the ribs fall and the chest again becomes nar- 
rower. When the lungs are filled with air, they press down 
the diaphragm ; and this then crowds down upon the organs 
contained in the abdomen, which are pushed out; hence the 
bulging of the abdomen in inspiration. 

Mouth-breathing. — In breathing, the air should be 
drawn through the nose and not through the mouth. Many 
children breathe through the mouth — an injurious practice 
which results in keeping the mouth open constantly, giving 
rise to a stupid expression of the face and allowing the air to 
reach the lungs in an improperly warmed and impure condi- 
tion. 

Frequency.of Breathing. — Usually we breathe about 
twenty times a minute. Young children breathe often er. After 
exercise, we breathe oftener than twenty times per minute. 
When asleep, we breathe less frequently. 



174 AK ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Changes which Breathing Produces in the 
Blood and Tissues.— It has already been stated that the ob- 
ject of breathing is to purify the blood. How this is done has 
also been explained. But the subject is so important that it 
will be well to review it briefly. The air passes into the air- 
spaces of the lungs. In the thin walls of these air-spaces there 
is a large number of very small capillaries. In this way the 
blood in the capillaries is separated from the air by very thin 
tissue only, and gases can pass from the air to the blood and 
from the blood to the air very readily. In breathing, the blood 
takes oxygen from the air, and in exchange it gives it the poi- 
sonous carbonic acid gas, moisture, warmth, and a second poi- 
sonous gas which will be described shortly. 

Changes Produced in the Air by Breathing.— 
While the air passes through the lungs it has oxygen taken from 
it — this is the first change. The second change is that it re- 
ceives some of the poisonous carbonic acid gas from the blood. 
Third, it takes moisture from the blood. If you breathe upon 
the window-pane you can easily see this moisture ; and in 
winter when it is cold you can notice the moisture in the air 
which we expire, because it becomes visible as soon as it meets 
the cold air. Fourth, the air which we exhale is warmer than 
that which we inhale, because it has taken some of the heat 
from the blood. 

Finally, the air takes from the blood a certain poisonous 
gas which has a disagreeable smell The exact nature of this 
unnamed gas is not known, but it is thought to be a mixture of 
many gases. It is known by its smell. If you come from the 
open air into a crowded room you find it disagreeable to breathe 
for a little while, because the air does not seem fresh ; and you 
call it close, and if it is very bad you say it is foul. It is this 
bad-smelling gas which gives this odor. It is fortunate that 
this exceedingly poisonous gas has a bad smell, for otherwise 
we should not know that the air was no longer fresh and needed 
changing. If we stay in such a close room for a little while, we 



THE OKGAKS OF VOICE AND BREATHING. 175 

no longer notice the smell, because we have become accustomed 
to it. 

Effects of Impure Air.— Much time spent in close 
rooms produces a sleepy, dull, and tired feeling ; the complexion 
suffers and we no longer look so bright as we did. The blood 
cannot be purified in such bad air. In this way all the tissues 
of the body become pale and weak, and the organs no longer 
worji as they should. 

Purification of the Air. — If the air is constantly 
being made impure by our breathing, it would seem quite 
natural to ask : Why is it that the air does not become so 
impure after a while that we cannot live in it ? This would re- 
sult if God had not provided two great purifiers— su/^^A^ and 
plants. These are the great natural purifiers and change the bad 
air, making it as good as it was before. You have no doubt 
noticed how stale it smells in all dark places, such as cellars. 
This is because the sunlight never enters to purify the air. 

The way in which the plants purify the air is still more 
wonderful ; they make use of the poisonous gases as their 
food. Carbonic acid gas is necessary for plants to live and 
grow. Let us stop to consider how plants live and grow : 

How Plants Live and Grow. — Plants breathe in 
poisonous gases from the air and breathe out pure oxygen. Be- 
sides the poisonous carbonic acid gas which they take from the 
air, they also absorb moisture and salts from the ground. 
From all these plants form their stems and leaves, and tbey 
grow until we could hardly believe that the big tree has grown 
from a small plant with no other nourishment than what has 
just been mentioned. In order to do this, plants must have 
sunlight— they will not grow in the dark. So that what is poi- 
sonous to the animal is food to the plant. And in this way pure 
oxygen is returned to the air and the poisonous carbonic acid 
gas is gotten rid of. 

Ventilation. — Ventilation means allowing impure air 
to escape from our rooms and letting fresh air takei its place. 



176 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKD HYGIENE. 

This is very necessary. We have already spoken of the eflects 
of impure air. If a man were locked in a room and everything 
were tightly closed so that no fresh air could enter, no matter 
how much food and drink he had, he would soon die, because 
his breathing would be constantly making the air of the room 
more and more impure, and finally he would die from want of 
pure air. 

In the summer it is quite easy to ventilate our rooms, 
for all we need to do is to open the windows wide and the 
fresh air will stream in and the impure air escape at the same 
time. But in the winter it is more difficult ; for the outside 
air, while it is fresh and pure, is also cold ; and if we opened 
the windows very wide w^e should feel cold. It is fortunate 
that our windows are not, as a rule, very tight fitting ; hence 
more or less air gets in through the cracks. But it is well to 
draw down the window a little from the top, for the foul air is 
lighter than the fresh air and is always found near the ceiling 
of the room. 

Another very good way of ventilating a room is to push 
up the lower window about six inches and to fasten a piece of 
board in front of the open space which you make in this w^ay. 
Or instead of a board a piece of canvas will be better yet, and 
it can be made to look nice by painting or embroidering on it. 
In this way the fresh air will come in through the canvas be- 
low, and the foul air will go out in the opening between the 
upper and lower portions of the window, as is shown in Fig. 
71. Certain methods of heating rooms are also valuable as 
means of ventilating them. The open- grate fire is one of the 
best means of supplying warmth, because it furnishes such 
a ready escape for the impure air, which passes up the chim- 
ney. 

In ventilating rooms it must be remembered that there 
should be no draughts of air upon the persons in the room, for 
otherwise they will catch cold. And also that a room cannot 
be healthy if no sunlight ever enters it. In some of our houses 



THE OKGAlSrS OF VOICE Al^D BREATHlNa. 171 

nowadays, and especially in wliat we call flats, many of the 
rooms are dark and never have any sunlight, and must be 




Fig, 71. — A Ready Method of Ventilating Rooms. The arrows above indicate the escape 
of the impure air ; those below, the entrance of fresh air. 



unhealthy, as the air in them can never be so pure as in light 
rooms. 



178 



AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A:ND HYGIENE. 



Effect of Tight Clothing upon Breathing.— 

Tight clothing presses upon the chest, and does not allow the 
lungs to expand as they should ; in this way not enough air 
can enter the lungs and the blood suffers, and from this also 
the rest of the body. Besides, if children dress so tightly 
about the chest, it will keep the chest from getting its proper 




Fig. 72. — A Deformed Chest, the Result of too Tight Clothing. Compare with the natural chest 
shown in Chapter II., Fig. 18. The dotted line indicates the position of the diaphragm. 



shape and size (Fig. 72). We should try to have as broad a 
chest as possible, and should always remember to throw our 
shoulders back, and to sit and stand erect. 

Effect of Alcoholic Drinks on the Lungs.— As 
every breath we draw unloads the body through the passage- 
way of the lungs, of carbonic acid gas and organic impurities 
of the blood, and takes in a fresh supply of oxygen, if any- 
thing happens to irritate the spongy cell-tissue of the lungs 
they are prevented from working well. 



THE OEGAlSrS OF VOICE AISTD BREATHH^G. 179 

The alcohol which passes off in the breath, giving it that 
very foul odor peculiar to a drinking man's breath, has to 
pass through the cells of the lungs, and in so doing irritates 
and congests them ; this, in time, changes the delicate tissues 
of the lungs and renders it more difficult for the interchange 
between the carbonic acid gas and oxygen to take place. Im- 
purities, therefore, accumulate in the body. 

Lung-cells that are frequently irritated and weakened by 
alcohol lose their tone, and sudden exposure or disease finds 
them unprepared to resist it. Pneumonia and consumption 
are terrifying diseases to the physician when his patient is a 
man in the habit of drinking liquor, for he has small chance 
of saving him. Not only is the chance of life lessened when 
these diseases attack one, but a man who drinks is in greater 
danger of contracting them. 

An authority on the subject writes : '' There is no form 
of consumption so fatal as that from alcohol. Medicines affect 
the disease but little, the most judicious diet fails, and change 
of air accomplishes but slight real good. It may be delayed 
in its course, but it is never stopped ; and not infrequently, 
instead of being delayed, it runs on to a fatal termination 
more rapidly than is common in any other type of the disorder." 

Effect of Tobacco upon the Throat and Vocal 
Cords- — Tobacco smoke so irritates the delicate membranes 
of the throat and bronchial tubes that many people coming 
into a room where others have been smoking are seized with 
a fit of coughing that will not stop until they get pure air. 
Much more does the inhaling of smoke by the smoker him- 
self irritate the membranes. " Smokers' sore throat " and 
" smokers' tongue " are familiar diseases to the physician. 

The vocal cords are reddened and thickened, and the 
voice rendered husky. Great singers avoid the use of to- 
bacco, and orators and public speakers find that if they want 
their voices to be strong and rich-toned they must not injure 
them by either strong drinks or tobacco. 



180 Al^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



SYNOPSIS. 

The Organ of Voice — The Larynx : 

1. Form — Triangular box. 

2. Structure — Walls formed of cartilage. 

3. Situation — Upper and front part of neck, just below chin 

4. Function : 

a. Passage of air to windpi]3e and lungs. 
h. Production of sound. 

5. Parts : 

a. Triangular piece (including Adam's apple). 
h. Circular piece. 
c. Epiglottis. 
c?. Vocal Cords : 

(1.) Protect windpipe. 

(2.) Move in respiration. 

(3. ) Produce the voice-sounds by their vibration 
The Organs of Breathing : 

1. Larynx. 

2. Trachea or windpipe. 

3. Eight and left bronchus. 

4. Lungs. 
Trachea : 

1. Situation — Along front of neck in middle line. 

2. Form — Cylindrical tube. 

3. Structure — Eings of cartilage joined together by mem- 
brane. 

4. Function— Conveys air from larynx to lungs. 

5. Branches — Eight and left bronchus. 
The Lungs : 

1. Situation — The cavity of the chest, on each side of the 
heart. 

2. Form — Cone-shaped, with apex above. 

3. Function — To purify the blood by allowing it to be 
brought in close contact with the air. 

4. Divisions — Eight and left lung. 

5. Structure : 

a. Bronchial tubes. 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE A^T> BREATHIIS^G. 181 

b. Air-spaces. 

c. Air-vesicles. 

d. Pleura, covering outside. 
Breathing : 

1. Is involuntary. 

2. Accoropanied by certain movements of chest : 

a. In inspiration, chest becomes wider and ribs rise. 

b. In expiration, chest becomes narrower and ribs fall. 

3. Frequency — xlbout twenty per minute ; more frequently 
in young children and after exercise. 

4. Changes produced in blood : 

a. Gains oxygen and becomes brighter. 

b. Loses carbonic acid gas, other poisonous gas, moist- 
ure, and heat. 

5. Changes produced in air : 

a. Loses oxygen. 

b. Has added : 

(1.) Carbonic acid gas. 

(2.) Poisonous ill-smelling gas, 

(3.) Moisture. 

(4.) Warmth. 

6. Effects of impure air : 

a. Poor health. 

b. Sleepy, dull, and tired feeling. 

7. Effects of bad habits : 

a. Mouth-breathing ; stupid expression ; air improperly 
warmed and cleansed. 

b. Tight clothing about chest ; deformed chest. 

c. Effect of alcohol on lungs ; irritates ; causes disease. 

d. Tobacco smoke ; cough ; sore throat. 
Purification of the air : 

1. Natural : 

a. Sunlight. 

b. Plants, by using the carbonic acid gas as part of their 
food and giving back oxygen to the air. 

2. Artificial — affecting dwellings ; ventilation. 



182 AJSTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the meaning of the word respiration? 2. What is 
the definition of to inspire ? 3. What is the definition of to ex- 
pire? 4. Through what different parts does the air pass before 
it reaches the lungs ? 5. What is the organ of voice called ? 6. 
Where is the larynx ? 7. W^hat is its shape ? 8. How is it formed ? 
9. What is Adam's apple? 10. What is the epiglottis? 11. Of 
what use is the epiglottis? 12. What are the vocal cords? 13. 
How do they protect the larynx and the windpipe ? 14. How do we 
prevent food from going the wrong way ? 15. How do the vocal 
cords move in breathing ? 16. How is sound produced ? 17. What 
makes the difference in the kind of sound produced ? 18. In what 
position are the vocal cords in singing high notes ? 19. In what 
position in breathing ? 20. What other parts change the sound in 
si3eaking? 21. Could we speak with the larynx alone? 22. How 
can you prove that the lips and the tongue take part in speaking ? 
23. Where is the windpipe ? 24. What is another name for it ? 
25. Where does it lead to ? 26. What tube runs along together 
with the windpipe ? 27. Which is in front, the windpipe or the gul- 
let? 28. How is the windpipe formed? 29. Where does it end 
and what becomes of it? 30. What are the bronchi, and where do 
they go to ? 31. What are the lungs ? 32. Where are they ? 33. 
How many are there ? 34. What is the shape of each ? 35. Are 
they light or heavy ? 36. Why are they so light ? 37. How are the 
lungs formed ? 38. What are the air-spaces ? 39. What are the 
lungs covered by on the outside ? 40. Do we use our will-power in 
breathing? 41. Can we stop breathing when we want to? 42. 
How do we breathe ? 43. What change do we see when we look at 
the chest while we are breathing? 44. What change if we look at 
the abdomen ? 45. Should we breathe through the mouth or 
through the nose ? 46. How often per minute do we usually 
breathe ? 47. What difference is there when we exercise ? 48. 
When we are asleep ? 49. What changes does breathing produce 
in the blood ? 50. Where and how do these changes occur ? 51. 
What changes are produced in the air by breathing ? 52. What is 
taken from the air ? 53. What is given to it ? 54. What poisonous 
gases are added to the air by breathing ? 55. What makes rooms 



THE ORGAlSrS OF VOICE AKD BREATHINGl. 183 

smell close and foul when many people are in them and tbey are 
not properly aired ? 56. What are the effects of impure air ? 57. 
How is the air purified ? 58. What are the two great purifiers of 
nature? 59. How do plants purify the air? 60. What does the 
food of plants consist of? 61. Can plants thrive without sunlight? 
62. What is ventilation? 63. Could we live in a room if the air 
wei-e not changed? 64. What is a good method of ventilating 
rooms in winter? 65. In what part of the room do we find most 
6t the impure air ? 66, Why are cold draughts undesirable ? 67. 
What effect has sunlight upon the air of a room ? 68. Can a room 
into which the sun never shines be healthy ? 69. What effect has 
tight clothing around the chest upon breathing ? 70, What effect 
has alcohol on the lungs? 71. What effect has tobacco-smoke 
upon the lungs ? 72. What effect has it upon the throat ? 



CHAPTEE XI. 
THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 

Have you ever stopped to think how it is that on the 
coldest day in winter our bodies remain warm, even though 
we go out into the open air ? It may be necessary to have a 
big fire in our rooms, but still our blood remains just as warm 
as in summer. You may say it is due to the clothing we wear, 
but this is not so. For if you took a cold stone and wrapped 
ever so much clothing around it, you could not warm it. Our 
clothes keep in the heat of the body, but they cannot produce 
any. 

The Body may be Compared to a Stove.— We 
can compare the human body to a stove, for there is some re- 
semblance in the manner in which heat is produced. The food 
which we take in by the stomach and the air which we breathe 
combine to form the fuel, just as coal and wood form the fuel 
in the stove. This human fuel is then received by the organs 
of digestion, and changed and liquefied, so that it can be used 
by the various parts of the body. The blood distributes the 
fluid nourishment to the tissues of the body, and also serves 
to relieve these tissues of the poisonous carbonic acid gas, and 
to supply them with oxygen which it has absorbed while pass- 
ing through the lungs. As the tissues of the body are used up 
in performing the work required of them, they are constantly 
being built up again by the nourishing materials which the 
blood conveys to them. 

Combustion. — This process of building up the various 
parts of the body by the nutritious portions of the food, changed 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 185 

to a fluid form by the organs of digestion, is followed by a con- 
sumption, or using-up, of the tissues when we use them in any 
way — in other words, when we work. This is called combustion, 
and means a slow burning, and it is accomplished by means of 
the oxygen which the blood carries to the tissues. 

What Results from the Burning of Fuel — Work. 
—If we recall the resemblance of the human body to a stove, 
and the similarity of our food to the fuel, it will be instructive 
to ascertain what becomes of the fuel consumed in an ordinary 
fire. Take a locomotive, for example. Its fuel consists of coal, 
which, in burning, combines with the oxygen of the air, thus 
producing combustion. As a result of this combustion, heat 
is produced, which changes the water in the boiler into steam. 
The steam turns the wheels of the locomotive and furnishes 
the i^ower which draws the cars, and enables us to travel many 
hundred miles a day. 

Another Result of the Burning of Fuel— Ref- 
use. — As has just been explained, one result of the burning 
of fuel in the locomotive is steam, this combustion taking place 
with the aid of the air. If there is no access of air there can 
be no combustion. Besides steam there is also produced refuse 
— ashes and smoke. These are of no value, and hence they are 
correctly called refuse, and allowed to escape, the smoke passing 
into the air and the ashes thrown away. "What was wanted from 
the fuel was the steam ; this does the vjork, whether it moves 
a locomotive or a steamboat, or lifts an elevator, or pumps 
up water ; and all these are merely examples of different kinds 
of vjork. Fuel, then, consumed with the aid of the oxygen of 
the air, has resulted in ivork, which is of the greatest value to 
us ; and in smoke and ashes, which are refuse, and which we 
throw away. 

What Results from the Combustion of Our 
Food.— If now we inquire what becomes of the food which 
is consumed by our tissues, both that which we take in by the 
stomach, and the oxygen which the blood takes from the air, 



186 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AISTD HYGIEKE. 

we find that the same things are produced, namely, heat and 
work, which are of value to us, and refuse materials^ which are 
of no use to us, and which are removed from the body. It has 
already been explained how the food is changed and then car- 
ried to the tissues by the blood, and also how the oxygen of 
the air is carried to the tissues. Both of these are fuel, and 
they unite with the tissues ; the oxygen unites with the tissues 
and consumes them, and then the new food builds them up 
again. It may be asked. Why must the tissues constantly 
be used up and then restored ? The answer is. Because we are 
constantly doing work and require heat ; and to get these, the 
tissues must be consumed in our body, just as wood and coal 
are in the locomotive. 

Casting off the Refuse Materials from the Body. 
— The refuse materials, which are no longer of any use, and 
which would be harmful if retained in the body, may be com- 
pared to the smoke and the ashes which escape from the loco- 
motive. The organs which serve to remove them from the 
body are the skin, the lungs, the kidneys, and the intestines. 
The skin removes certain poisonous gases, and also certain 
other materials in the perspiration — hence the necessity of 
keeping the pores open. The lungs, as has just been ex- 
plained, remove carbonic acid gas and other poisonous gases 
in the expired air. The kidneys remove impurities in liquid 
form. The intestines remove the solid refuse. 

Food and Oxygen Produce Heat and Work. — 
It does not require much study to appreciate how much work 
the body is constantly doing. Even when asleep the body is 
doing work. The heart is working faithfully, beating to sup- 
ply all parts of the body with life's fluid, the blood ; the chest 
is rising and falling and the lungs expanding to take in air ; 
and there are many other examples of work, of constant work. 
When a man is deep in thought, it might be considered that 
he is idle and resting, but this would be incorrect. Such a 
man is working very hard with his brain, and such work is 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 187 

as tiring as working with the hands. Other examples of work 
we see around us every day — the men digging, paving the 
streets, and building the houses. When hard work is required 
more food is necessary than when persons are idle. 

Warm-blooded and Cold-blooded Animals.— If 
you touch a stone in the street it will be cold in winter, but 
warm in summer if the sun has been shining upon it. But 
though it may feel warm, it has no heat of its own, and is 
simply warm or cold according as the air around it is warm or 
cold. If you put it in a fire it will become hot, but if taken 
out again it becomes as cold as the bodies around it. This is 
the case with all bodies which have no life. But with animals 
it is different ; they have heat of their own, and it does not 
matter whether the air around them is cold or warm, their 
blood will be about the same. Animals can be divided into 
two classes. One class, the fishes, have cold blood ; you will 
-rem ember how cold and clammy a fish feels. Fishes belong 
to the cold-blooded animals. Most animals, however, have warm 
blood, and hence are called warm-blooded animals. Most of the 
animals we see are of this class. Birds have especially warm 
blood. 

Heat of the Human Body.— The heat of the human 
body is about 98 degrees as measured with the thermometer. 
All of you have probably seen a thermometer. It is a long, 
hollow tube of glass, containing a silvery fluid called quicksilver. 
Heat makes the quicksilver rise, and the more heat the higher 
it rises ; so that we tell how hot anything is by the height to 
which the fluid in the thermometer rises, there being numbers 
attached to the frame of the instrument to express the heat. 
Ninety-eight degrees expresses the heat of our blood, and hence 
this is called blood-heit. On a very warm day in summer you 
may read about the thermometer having risen to blood-heat ; 
this means 98 degrees. 

The skin is never so warm as the blood. In winter the 
skin, especially of the hands, may be quite cold, and yet the 



188 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

blood-heat remains the same. On the other hand, our skin 
may be very warm in summer, and still the heat of the blood 
does not rise. So that the blood and the interior of the body 
have the same heat in summer as in winter, namely, 98 de- 
grees. 

Heat of the Body in Sickness. — When sick with 
fever, the blood becomes hotter ; and if this increase of heat is 
more than a few degrees, it is very dangerous. 

Regulation of the Body Heat. — In summer, when 
it is warm, there does not need to be so much heat produced in 
the body, and we naturally take less food, and wear lighter cloth- 
ing, and do not work so hard as in the cold months. In winter, 
on account of the coldness in the air, we must have an extra 
supply of body heat, which we produce by eating more, by 
wearing heavier clothing, and by doing more work. In winter 
we should take more exercise than at any other time of the 
year. Nature usually gives us a better appetite in winter than 
in summer, and we usually eat more meat than when the 
weather is warm. 

There is another way in which we increase the warmth 
of the body in winter, and that is by wearing warmer clothing. 
But it has just been stated that clothes do not produce heat; 
then why do we wear thicker and warmer clothes in winter than 
in summer ? This statement is true, clothes do not produce heat, 
but they prevent the warmth from leaving the body too quickly. 
In winter the air is very cold, and the heat of the body would 
pass into the air very soon, to prevent which we put on warm 
clothing. 

Warm Clothing. — Woollen clothing is the warmest. 
In winter it is well to wear flannel next to the skin. In sum- 
mer linen clothing is the coolest. Black clothes are warmer 
than white ones because they absorb more external heat. This 
can easily be shown in the following way : If you take two 
pieces of cloth of the same kind and size, and place them on 
the snow, that under the black cloth will be melted before that 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 189 

under the white one. This is the reason for wearing dark 
clothing in winter and light colors in summer. 

How to Keep Warm in Winter. — In winter we de- 
pend upon exercise, additional food, and warmer clothing to 
keep us warm. And all three of these must be combined if we 
want to feel comfortable. You have seen car-drivers slapping 
their arms about on a cold da3\ This gives them exercise and 
quakes them warm ; it makes the warm blood circulate faster, 
and this brings heat to the tissues. If you stand still on a 
wintry day the feet soon become cold. This is very unhealthy, 
and is a sign that you should exercise in order to get more 
blood back into the feet. If we go out on a cold day before 
breakfast we feel very chilly ; and everyone knows how much 
better he is able to stand the cold after having had a warm 
meal. 

How to Keep Cool in Summer. — In summer we 
should eat less meat and less food than in winter. Usually our 
appetite is not so good in summer as it is in winter, and natu- 
rally, therefore, we take less food, and we should wear light 
clothing. Everything we do during the warm parts of the sum- 
mer days we should do slowly and should 7iot hurry. We should 
not walk much in the sun without being shaded. 

How the Body is Kept Cool in Summer.— It 
would seem difficult to prevent the body from being over- 
heated in summer when the air around us is so warm ; and you 
might wonder, too, why it is that the blood of a locomotive en- 
gineer, or of a cook, who is in front of a hot fire all day long, is 
•^no warmer than that of persons who can keep cool. There are 
two ways in which the bodily heat is prevented from rising 
above 98 degrees when persons must be near furnaces and 
fires or are otherwise exposed to the heat. 

Both methods depend upon the fact that whenever 
moisture or water leaves any surface it makes that surface cold ; 
that is, it takes some of the heat of that surface with it. In 
India, the drinking-water is cooled by placing it in porous clay 



190 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

vessels which allow a little of the water to soak through, after 
which it passes off into the air and thus makes the rest of the 
water cool. If you wet your hand and then hold it in the air, 
it feels cold, because the water in passing into the air takes 
some of the heat of the hand with it. 

In this way our blood does not get any warmer in sum= 
mer than in winter. For in summer more moisture leaves the 
body than in winter. Moisture leaves the body in two ways : 
By the langs and by the skin. We breathe more rapidly in 
summer than in winter, especiallj^ if it is very warm, and in 
this way, more moisture is given off to the air from the blood 
passing through the lungs. Then again, the expired air con- 
tains more moisture in summer. 

Perspiration. — The moisture which passes off by the 
skin is called perspiration. This is taking place constantly 
through the pores, but in summer so much passes off that it col- 
lects in drops and is then called visible or sensible perspiration. 

Ice-water in Summer. — Tliere is no objection to 
ice-water in summer if you do not drink too much, and if you 
take but a little at a time. Some people get into the habit of 
drinking ice-water constantly. This is very unhealthy and will 
make them suffer. But if it be remembered to drink it slowly 
and only a little at a time, it will not usually do any harm. 

Sunstroke. — When a person has been in the sun a 
long time, the heat of the blood may become so great, or the 
effect of this heat upon the nerves so serious, that it makes him 
dangerously sick ; this is called sunstroke. It is a very danger- 
ous condition. If you have to walk much in the sun, you 
should stop and go into the shade and rest as soon as you feel 
the least faint or dizzy. 

Effects of Cold. — If we are in the cold a long time, it 
sometimes happens that vie freeze the nose, ears, toes, or fingers. 
When this occurs, the frozen part of the body becomes pale or 
purple. At first it becomes painful, but when really frozen 
it has no feeling at all. The reason these parts of the body 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 191 

freeze is because the blood does not flow in them as it should; 
there is too little blood in them, and so there is too little heat 
to keep off the cold. When the ears or the nose begin to 
smart they are beginning to feel the effects of the cold, and 
we should rub them so as to bring the blood back. When we 
are very cold and have frozen a part of the body, we should 
not go near the fire at once ; the change of temperature would 
be too sudden and the frozen part might die. We should 
give the frozen part a thorough rubbing. 

Effect of Alcohol in Bodily Heat. — It is a great mis- 
take to suppose that alcoholic drinks warm the body. They 
flush the skin and make it feel warm, but they in reality only 
expose the warm blood more completely to the chilling effects 
of the air. It is true that a man who has been drinking does 
not feel cold, but that is because the nerves of his body, by 
which he perceives heat and cold, are slightly paralyzed, and 
do not carry true sensations ; therefore he is all the while be- 
ing chilled, and sometimes he may be frozen without knowing 
it, whereas if he had not been deceived by his false sensations 
he would have put on warmer clothing or exercised or in- 
creased his bodily heat in some natural way. 

The thermometer shows what a perceptible loss there is 
in bodily heat after taking strong drink. Some drunken men 
have been known to have a temperature two or three degrees 
below normal; 

It is said that in the Russian army when a long cold march 
is to be made, a corporal makes the rounds to smell the 
-breath of all the men, and if any are found who have been taking 
alcoholic drinks they are sent back as unfit to stand the cold. 

The effect of liquor was shown very well in Napoleon's 
campaign in Russia ; of those soldiers who succumbed to the 
severe cold and exposure, by far the majority were addicted 
to the use of alcoholic drinks. 

The following incident shows that the body loses its 
heat in direct proportion to the amount of alcohol drunk. 



192 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AKB HYGIENE. 

A party of men crossing a western prairie, who were ob- 
liged to spend a very bitter night on the ground, with no 
shelter, were advised by their leader not to drink any alcohol. 
Three drank themselves drunk and w^ere found frozen to death 
in the morning. Four, who became partly intoxicated, were 
badly frozen and died of the effects later. Others who drank 
a little were frost-bitten in their toes and fingers, and the only 
ones who escaped freezing were the leader and two others, 
who did not touch a drop. 



SYNOPSIS. 

Combustion — The slow consumption of the tissues : 

a. Requires food and oxygen. 

b. Produces : 

1. Life. 

2. Growth. 

3. Work and heat. 
Eefuse of the Body : 

a. Gaseous, given off by : 

1. Lungs — expiration. 

2. Skin. 

b. Liquid, given off by kidneys. 

c. Solid, given off by intestines. 
Heat of Animals : 

a. Warm-blooded animals. 

b. Cold-blooded animals. 
Heat of the Human Body : 

1. About 98° in health in the interior. 

2. Colder on the surface of the skin, depending upon the 
warmth of the air. May be slightly warmer in summer. 

3. Higher in sickness (fever). 

4. Regulated by : 

(1.) Amount and kind of food. 

(2.) Amount and kind of clothing, 

(3.) Amount of exercise. 

(4.) Perspiration. ^ 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 193 

To Keep Warm in Winter : 

1. Much clothing, especially woollen ; flannel next to skin. 

2. Much food, especially meat. 

3. Much exercise. 

To Keep Cool in Summer : 

1. Light clothing, especially linen. 

2. Less food, and less meat. 
* 3. Less exercise. 

The Control of Bodily Heat in Summer — By increased escape of 
nioisture by lungs and by skin. 

Undesirable Effects of Heat and Cold : 

1. Sunstroke. 

2. Freezing parts. 

3. Bad effects of too much ice-water. 

Effect of alcohol on bodily heat. Eeduces temperature. In cold 
climates renders one liable to freeze. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What effect has our clothing upon the body heat? 2. In 
what way can the body be compared to a stove ? 3. What corre- 
sponds to the fuel of the stove ? 4. What do we call the slow burn- 
ing which takes place in the body ? 5. How does fuel do work in 
the locomotive ? 6. What results from the fuel in a locomotive be- 
sides the steam which does the work ? 7. What results from the 
combustion of our food ? 8. What does the oxygen of the air do ? 
9. Why are the tissues constantly used up and then restored ? 10. 
What gases are given oft' from the body ? 11. What is the object of 
taking food into our stomach, and oxygen from the air into our 
blood ? 12. What do these produce ? 13. Is the body ever idle ? 
14. What work does it do even when we are asleep? 15. Is the 
body doing any work when we think ? 16. Can a hard-working man 
get along on as little food as one who is idle ? 17. Do all animals 
have the same warmth of the blood ? 18. What is meant by a cold- 
blooded animal ? 19. Give an example. 20. What is meant by a 
warm-blooded animal? 21. Give an example. 22. Have bodies 
without any life in them any heat of their own? 23. What is the 
heat of the human body ? 24. What is a thermometer ? 25. Is our 
skin warmer or cooler than the rest of our body ? 26. What change 
is there in the heat of the body when we have fever ? 27. What do 



194 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

we do in summer so that less bodily heat shall be produced ? 28. 
Do we need more heat or less heat in winter than in summer? 
29. How do we produce more heat in winter ? 30. Do clothes pro- 
duce heat? 31. What do they do to the heat? 32. What is the 
warmest kind of clothing ? 33. What is the coolest kind of cloth- 
ing ? 34. What color of cloth is the warmer, black or white ? 35. 
How can you show this ? 36. What should we do to keep warm in 
winter ? 37. What should we do to keep cool in summer ? 38. How 
is the body kept cool in summer? 39. Does the blood become 
warmer if we stand in front of a fire all day ? 40. What effect is 
produced when moisture passes into the air? 41. How can you 
show this effect by an example ? 42. In what ways does moisture 
leave the body ? 43. What is perspiration? 44. How does perspira- 
tion keep the heat of the body from rising ? 45. How can you take 
ice-water in summer without harming you ? 46. What is sunstroke ? 
47. What should you do to avoid being sunstruck ? 48. What are 
the effects of great cold ? 49. What parts of the body are we most 
apt to freeze? 50. In what way may certain parts of the body 
freeze ? 51. How does the nose or ear feel when it is freezing? 52. 
How do they feel when they are frozen ? 53. Should we go near 
the fire immediately when we have frozen a part of the body ? 54. 
What should we do? 55. What effect does alcohol have on the 
heat of the body ? 56. What danger do men in cold climates run, 
if they drink alcohol ? 



CHAPTER XII 
TOBACCO AND OTHEE NAECOTICS. 

Substances which benumb the system and produce sleep 
are called narcotics. Insensibility and death may result from 
their effects if enough is taken. Narcotics benumb the brain, 
and thus produce an artificial sleep, which usually lacks the 
refreshing qualities of natural sleep, being often followed by 
a stupid condition and by headache. Alcohol is a narcotic ; 
this is seen in a very pronounced manner in the heavy sleep 
which occurs in drunkenness. In some persons, even a small 
amount of alcoholic drink will cause drowsiness ; this effect 
is noticed especially after drinking malt liquors. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco is a narcotic. It has a benumbing effect upon the 
brain and nerves, though it does not always produce sleep. 

History of Tobacco- — The custom of smoking and 
chewing tobacco had been prevalent among the Indians for a 
long time when America was discovered. In 1560 Nicot, 
the French Ambassador, brought some of it to France. It 
was introduced into England in 1586 by Sir Walter Ealeigh ; 
before the end of the century its use had spread over nearly 
the whole world. 

Cultivation and Preparation of Tobacco. — The 
Cuban leaf is the most highly prized, but tobacco grows any- 
where and everywhere. It is cultivated in every State of the 
Union, though some States grow much more than others. 
Virginia produces over eighty million pounds, and Kentucky 



196 Al^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

over one hundred and seventy million pounds a year. The 
plant reaches the height of several feet ; it has large, spread- 
ing, pale-green leaves. 

In i^repan?!^ tobacco for use the plant is cut near the 
ground at the end of summer, and the leaves are dried on the 
stems by hanging them in barns. Then they are afterward 
strij^ped from the stems, moistened, and tied into bundles. 
These are piled up for a number of weeks, during w^hich a 
sort of fermentation goes on ; this brings out a dark brown 
color and develops an aroma. Tobacco is then rolled to form 
cigars, or cut into delicate shreds which are made into small 
cylinders by means of paper or tobacco wrappers to make 
cigarettes, or chopped more or less fine for use in pipes, or 
ground into a fine powder for snuff. When used for chewing 
it is mixed with sugar or molasses, licorice, and other ingre- 
dients, and packed in paper or pressed into hard pieces. 

Composition of Tobacco. — Its important constit- 
uent is a very poisonous liquid, which readily escapes into the 
air and which at first is colorless, but soon turns brown ; this 
poison is called nicotine, and tobacco contains from two to 
nine per cent. The odor and aroma of tobacco seems to de- 
pend upon an oily or fatty substance, called oil of tobacco. 

Effects of Tobacco upon the System. — The ef- 
fects of tobacco upon the system are influenced by habit and 
by the peculiarities of individuals. There is a great difference 
between the effects produced at first, and those which follow 
after the system has become accustomed to it. When frst 
used, and in those unaccustomed to it, tobacco produces dizzi- 
ness, headache, perspiration, sickness at the stomach, vomit- 
ing, great weakness, and trembling. 

After a time the system usually becomes accustomed to 
its use, and a tolerance is established. It then acts as a mild 
narcotic, leaving a sense of repose, and having a quieting in- 
fluence upon the body and mind as long as the effect lasts, but 
as it begins to wear off a sense of uneasiness, irritability, and 



ISTARCOTICS. 197 

nervousness follows, which calls for a repetition of the indul- 
gence. But this soothing effect is not produced in every 
user of tobacco. There are many persons who never experi- 
ence it ; and quite a large number are made uncomfortable by 
tobacco in any form, even in the smallest quantities, and 
never succeed in becoming accustomed to it, or in deriving 
any comfort or satisfaction from its use. 

Tobacco as a Medicine, — Tobacco is now 7io Zor^^er 
Used as a medicine. Formerly a tobacco poultice was some- 
times applied to bruised or inflamed parts ; but this use 
proved objectionable because the poisonous part of the drug 
was taken up into the. system through the skin, and often 
gave rise to serious symptoms. 

The Tobacco Habit- — The fondness for tobacco is an 
acquired habit. At first it is probably used merely from a 
desire to imitate ; then it becomes a habit, and soon carses 
a craving which is satisfied only by larger and larger quanti- 
ties. This habit does not, however, become as firmly rooted 
as the alcohol habit ; and the evils resulting from the use of 
tobacco are not so apparent and pronounced as those caused 
by alcohol. 

Injurious Effects of Tobacco on the Adult. — 
Quite a number of adults suffer from symptoms which ^are 
directly due to the effects of tobacco, and are consequently 
evidences of tobacco jjoisoning. In many cases such symjDtoms 
are slight, but in many others they are serious enough to de- 
mand the discontinuance of the use of tobacco in any form'. 
The poisonous effects of tobacco may show themselves in the 
throat, the lungs, the heart, the eye, and the nerves, in loss 
of appetite and indigestion ; they comprise a group of symp- 
toms of very common occurrence. 

In the case of the young it is unquestionably a poison tvhich 
causes decided injury. 

Smoker's Sore Throat- —The irritating effect of to- 
bacco-smoke often causes a reddened, raw condition of the 



198 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

throat, giving rise to a feeling of dryness or of scratching, 
and known as smoker's sore throat. This irritation may ex- 
tend into the bronchial tubes and provoke a chronic cough. 

The appetite may suffer and attacks of indigestion may 
occur ; a form of dyspepsia may be set up. Periods of dizzi- 
ness and oifaintness occur from time to time in those who are 
unfavorably affected by the use of tobacco. 

Tobacco Heart. — Numbers of smokers are compelled to 
give up the habit on account of its producing what is called 
'' tobacco heart "; this is a nervous derangement of the action 
of the heart, showing itself in fluttering and palpitation, with 
too rapid and irregular action. 

Tobacco Blindness. — As a result of tobacco poison- 
ing, the optic nerve is sometimes affected, and a form of blind- 
ness ensues. This gives rise to the same symptoms and is 
caused by the same wasting of the nerve of sight as the 
blindness from the alcohol habit, which has already been de- 
scribed. 

Tobacco Nervousness. — Nervousness and trembliyig, 
frequently quite marked and noticeable, are often the conse- 
quences of smoking. 

Injurious Effects of Tobacco on the Young. — 
Many public schools, as well as military and naval academies, 
forbid their pupils to use tobacco, for examinations of many 
boys who have been accustomed to the use of it show that, 
almost without exception, they have trouble with the heart 
or digestion, from which they recover if the practice is given 
up in time ; but which would settle into chronic disease if 
they persisted in its use. Even men who have formed the 
habit of smoking, and who cannot or will not break them- 
selves of it, are unanimous in stamping it as one of the most 
poisonous and injurious practices, when indulged in by young 
and growipq persons. 

It checks their growth, weakens the system, and impairs both 
muscular and mental activity. Of this there can be no doubt. 



NARCOTICS. 199 

Some of the States have very wisely passed laws forbidding 
the sale of tobacco to young people. 

The Medical Record of New York, the most prominent 
medical journal in the United States, says : " The evils of 
tobacco are intensified a hundred-fold on the young. Here 
it is unqualifiedly and uniformly iw'urious. It stunts the 
growth, poisons the heart, impairs the mental powers, and 
cripples the individual in every way. Not that it does this to 
etery youth, but it may be safely asserted that no boy of 
twelve or fourteen can begin the practice of smoking without 
becoming physically or mentally injured by the time he is 
twenty-one. Sewer-gas is bad enough, but a boy had better 
learn his Latin over a man-trap than get the habit of smok- 
ing cigarettes." 

Influence of Tobacco upon Muscular Strength 
and the Power of Endurance, — What has been said of 
the necessity of avoiding alcohol during the process of train- 
ing applies with equal force to tobacco. No athlete is allowed 
to use tobacco in any form during the preparation for running, 
jumping, rowing, or other similar contests, since it interferes 
with the fullest development of muscular strength and the 
power of endurance. 

Cigarette Smoking. — This is probably the mos^ inju- 
rious form of using tobacco. Cigarettes are usually made of 
the very poorest stuff. Being common and cheap, they are 
brought within the reach of boys, and in this way tobacco 
tempts and injures the young in the most insidious man- 
ner. While the smoker of a cigar or pipe simply draws 
the smoke into the mouth and then expels it, the cigarette 
smoker usually inhales it — that is, he either voluntarily or 
involuntarily draws it into his lungs. This practice is not 
only irritating to the lungs, but it enables the air-spaces to 
absorb much more of the poisonous nicotine than when the 
smoke is simply drawn into the mouth and then puffed out. 
The paper with which cigarettes are made is another objec- 



200 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

tionable feature, its smoke being harsh, irritating, and 
poisonous. 

Other Objections to the Tobacco Habit— The 
use of snuff is a filthy habit which is not as prevalent now as it 
used to be ; it is apt to injure the sense of smell and to keep 
the nose and throat in an irritable and unhealthy condition. 
Chewing tobacco is a disgusting habit which makes the breath 
foul, discolors the teeth, and is accompanied by the dirty prac- 
tice of spitting. 

Even under the most favorable circumstances a num- 
ber of objections, based upon abuse of the sense of cleanliness, 
can be urged against smoking. The smell of tobacco-smoke 
becomes stale and clings to the hair and the clothing. The 
teeth, and frequently the fingers, become discolored. The 
breath cannot be sweet, and the atmosphere of our houses is 
more or less vitiated. To many persons the smoke of tobacco 
is offensive, and some are even made sick by it ; smokers are 
very apt to forget this and their good manners, and to subject 
such persons to great annoyance. 

Smoking is an Expensive Habit.— Smoking is a 
very expensive habit. It is estimated that over six hundred 
million dollars are annually expended for tobacco in the United 
States ; this is three-fifths of what drink costs, and twice as 
much as is spent for meat. 



OPIUM AND MORPHINE. 

Opium. — Opium is the dried juice of the unripe fruit 
of the poppy-plant, which is cultivated in many parts of Asia 
and especially in India. To obtain it the unripe capsule or 
seed vessel is cut into, so as to allow the milky juice to ooze 
out ; the next morning this is scraped off, placed in earthen 
Tessels to harden by evaporation, and then pressed into irregu- 
lar globular masses, known as opium. 



NARCOTICS. 201 

Physical Properties of Opium and Morphine. — 

Opium occurs either in the form of dark-brown, sticky masses, 
or as a brown powder. It has a pecuHar smell. Its most im- 
portant active principle is morphine, which is extracted by 
means of water, and forms white crystals. Morphine produces 
the same effects as opium ; it is, howevei-, about ten times as 
strong. 




Fig. 76.— The Opium Plant. 

Opiates. — Any medicine which contains opium or 
some preparation of opium is known as an opiate. When the 
soluble parts of opium are dissolved in alcohol and water, 
laudanum is formed ; this is its most common fluid preparation. 
Opium mixed with ipecac and a diluting powder constitutes 



202 AI^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Dover's powder. Paregoric, another fluid preparation, contains, 
besides opium, camphor, anise, and other ingredients. It is a 
very common method of employing an opiate, and is very often 
carelessly given to children. 

Effects of Opium and Morphine. — Opium is a 
powerful narcotic. In the hands of physicians of skill it is one 
of the most useful drugs which we possess. Whatever is true 
of opium is also true of morphine, which is a concentrated 
equivalent of opium producing the same effect with about one- 
tenth the dose. Opium and morphine are exceedingly useful 
in relieving pain and restlessness, and in lyromoting sleep ; they 
quiet the system and control spasms and convulsions ; there is 
scarcely any part of the body which cannot be favorably acted 
upon in sickness by these agents, when properly and carefully 
prescribed by a competent physician. 

Opium and Morphine Poisoning. — When an over- 
dose is taken, however, they act as powerful narcotic poisons, A 
great many deaths result every year from poisoning by opium 
and morphine, taken intentionally or by mistake, probably a 
greater number than from any other poison. Infants and young 
children are much more easily poisoned than older beings. 
Some persons are peculiarly affected by opium and morphine, 
so that what is a small dose for one may prove to be a large 
dose for another ; hence, even physicians have to be extremely 
careful in prescribing this very useful but very powerful drug. 

The Opium or Morphine Habit. — Everyone has 
probably heard of the opium habit, or, what is the same thing, 
the morphine habit. It is a habit people get into of taking these 
drugs whether they need them or not. Morphine and opium 
take away pain and make people sleep when they are sick and 
restless ; in such cases they do a great deal of good. But 
persons who have the morphine or opium habit do not take the 
drug for this purpose, but because they think it makes them 
feel good for the time being, and makes them forget any cares 
they may have. After the effects pass off, they feel miserable. 



NARCOTICS. 203 

The stomach is upset, they are tired and nervous, have a very 
bad headache, and often feel like vomiting. They feel so bad 
that they take more and more, until finally they keep under the 
efiects of it all the time. 

In China, this habit is very prevalent, and it is estimated 
that over three million Chinese have the opium habit. The 
drug is imported from India and furnishes a great source of 
revenue to the English. In this country, the habit is, unfortu- 
nately, greatly on the increase ; half a million persons in the 
United States have the opium or morphine habit, notwithstand- 
ing the fact that it is forbidden by law, and that the sale of 
opium or morphine is not legal except when called for by a 
physician's prescription. 

The Pangs of the Opium and the Morphine 
Habit. — While under the influence of opium or morphine, the 
victim is in a sort of dreamy, drowsy condition, forgetful of all 
surroundings. As soon as the effects of the drug wear off, the 
wretched being is left in a frightful condition. He is entirely 
demoralized ; he suffers from severe headaches and neuralgias ; 
there is weakness, irritability, and restlessness ; he is troubled 
and frightened and has a feeling of intense horror. The pangs 
of this period of awakening are said to cause indescribable 
suffering, and craving for more opium and morphine becomes 
perfect torture. He cannot rest until he has obtained another 
dose. He will do anything — lie, cheat, or steal — to satisfy this 
longing by securing more opium or morphine. Promises to 
reform are broken, and the firmest resolves count for nothing. 
.The wretched prisoner of this habit has lost cdl power over him- 
self and all controlling influence upon his moral sense. He is 
rightfully called an '''opium fiend'' or a '' morphine fiend " He 
knows and appreciates his calamity but cannot change it. The 
habit is one which is much more difficult to break up than is 
either alcohol or tobacco. 

Results of the Opium and the Morphine Habit. 
■ — The effects of the opium and the morphine habit upon health 



204 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

early show themselves. The poor wretch soon becomes 
nervous ; he cannot sleep at night ; he has no appetite ; if he 
takes any food he cannot digest and often vomits it ; he 
becomes thin and has a yellow complexion ; his mind changes 
and he loses his memory ; be has no longer the power to do 
right, and he is known to tell lies without hesitation, to cheat, 
and to steal, in order to get some of the drug. 

The quantity of the drug which it is necessary to take 
to produce tlie desired effect constantly becomes greater ; 
many of these unfortunates take at a single dose an amount 
which would be sufficient to kill twenty, or even fifty persons, 
who are unaccustomed to it. 

CHLORAL. 

Chloral, or chloral hydrate, is a substance prepared by the 
action of chlorine on alcohol, for use hi medicine. Its physi- 
ological action, when applied directly to any part, is that of 
an irritant ; when absorbed into the system, that of a narcotic. 
It produces a state resembling sleep, owing probably to its 
action on the cerebrum. The sleep induced by chloral may 
pass off like ordinary slumber, or may deepen into a fatal 
coma, according to the amount taken. 

The Chloral Habit. — People sometimes get into the 
habit of taking this medicine regularly for its peculiar effects. 
It may have been prescribed originally by the family physician 
who intended it only for temporary use. But tempted by its 
soothing effect, some persons continue to use it, and to get into 
the habit of taking it regularly to relieve pain or to produce 
sleep, until they cannot sleep without it. They have then ac- 
quired the chloral habit. Though not as prevalent as the use 
of morphine or opium, it is nevertheless a dangerous habit. 

Like alcohol and narcotics in general, the dose neces- 
sary to produce the desired result constantly becomes larger 
and larger, and the longing for the drug steadily increases. 
Many persons have acquired the habit in trying to relieve the 



NAKCOTICS. 205 

depressing effects of the alcohol habit, and in sucli cases they 
have usually merely succeeded in becoming the victims of an 
additional curse. 

Effects of the Chloral Habit. — In a very short 
time, the injurious effects of this drug upon the system show 
themselves. The victim becomes nervous, weak, and very much 
emaciated; the skin is pale and yellow, he loses his appetite 
and acquires a dislike for food ; he suffers from indigestion. 
'Finally he becomes a com^leiQ physical, mental, and moral ivreck, 
perhaps dying in a hospital from weakness, or ending his days 
in an insane asylum. Very often, also, he takes too much of 
the drug and this leads to a fatal end. 

ABSINTHE. 

Absinthe is a strong alcoholic drink which is flavored 
with oil of tcormwood. Its effects correspond to those of other 
alcoholic liquors, but in addition the wormwood produces very 
decided and poisonous symptoms showing themselves especially 
upon the nervous system. The habit of consuming large quan- 
tities of absinthe is prevalent in France, but of late years this 
dangerous habit has travelled and has gathered in many persons 
in England and America, and it seems to be on the increase in 
this country. In addition to the effects of the alcohol, absinthe 
produces a sort of unconsciousness or dreamy state. The effects 
of the absinthe habit are very pronounced and lead to very se- 
rious injury. The victim loses all desire for food and suffers 
from dyspepsia; the tongue and mouth become dry and the 
throat irritable ; spasms of various muscles occur, and if still 
persisted in, the habit causes convulsions, often leading to pa- 
ralysis and death. 

HASHISH. 

Hashish, an extract derived from Indian hemp, is used 
as a narcotic by the natives of India. It produces a drowsy 
condition in which objects are seen, but seem a great distance 



206 AlS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

off, and passed events are recollected as though they had oc- 
curred at some very remote period. Though still used by many 
natives of India, the habit does not seem to have had any charm 
for others. It is rarely met with in this country. 

CHLOROFORM. 

Chloroform is a remedy of iJicalculable heneiit. It is a 
colorless fluid having a pleasant odor. It is inhaled like ether 
for the purpose of producing unconsciousness, so that operations 
upon the body can be performed without causing any pain. It 
is also used, both externally and internally, for the relief of 
pain and spasm. Occasionally, we find individuals who have 
formed the habit of inhaling chloroform whenever they have the 
slightest pain or for the purpose of putting them to sleep. This 
practice is extremely dangerous; many of such unfortunate 
persons lose their lives from an overdose. Under no circum- 
sta7ices can chloroform be safely used, unless given by a phy- 
sician. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Narcotics — Benumb the system ; relieve pain ; produce sleep ; pow- 
erful and dangerous. Most common narcotics are opium, 
morphine, and chloral ; also alcohol in large amount. To- 
bacco is a mild narcotic. 

Tobacco — The dried leaves of the tobacco-plant. 

1. Used by American Indians for long time previous to landing 
of Columbus. 

2. Introduced into France in 1560 ; into England, by Sir Wal- 
ter Ealeigh, in 1586. 

3. Cultivated in the United States and in every other part of 
the world. 

4. The leaf must be prepared for use by drying, moistening, 
and fermenting, to bring out color and aroma. 

5. Used in smoking (cigars, cigarettes, pipe), chewing, and 
snuffing. 

6. Contains a poisonous principle called nicotine, and another 
called oil of tobacco. 



NARCOTICS. 207 

7. Effects upon the system : 

1. When first used— Dizziness, headache, perspiration, 
sickness at stomach, vomiting, faintness, and trembling. 

2. After a time tolerance is established. 

3. Quieting effect and sense of repose in some persons. 

4. On other persons, no effect, or disagreeable effect. 

5. No longer used as a medicine. 

6. Causes smokers' sore throat. 

7. Appetite suffers, dyspepsia, indigestion. 

8. Tobacco heart. 

9. Tobacco blindness. 

10. Tobacco nervousness. 

11. When used by young and growing persons : Checks 
growth, weakens system, impairs muscular and mental activ- 
ity. 

12. Diminishes muscular strength and power of endurance. 

8. Cigarette smoking especially injurious. 

9. Smoking is an uncleanly habit; hair and clothes smell of 
stale smoke ; breath offensive ; teeth soiled ; smoke is offensive 
to other persons. 

10. Chewing and snuffing very filthy. 

11. The use of tobacco is an expensive habit ; over six hundred 
million dollars spent annually in the United States. 

Opium and Morphine : 

1. Opium is the dried juice of the unripe seed-vessel of the 
poppy-plant ; comes from India and neighboring countries ; oc- 
curs in brownish mass or powder ; powerful narcotic poison. 

2. Morphine is, extracted from opium ; occurs in small, white 
crystals ; has same effects as opium ; is about ten times as strong. 

3. Opiates : Medicines which contain opium. 

4. Preparations of opium : Laudanum, paregoric, Dover's pow- 
der. 

5. Effects of opium and morphine : Relieve pain and restless- 
ness ; break spasms and convulsions ; produce sleep. 

6. Useful only when prescribed by a physician. 

7. Persons often acquire the habit of taking opium or morphine ; 
this habit is very injurious, and exceedingly difficult to break ; the 
health suffers very much ; the poor victims endure a miserable 
existence. 



208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

8. Opium and morphine poisoning; very dangerous; often 
fatal. 
Chloral or Chloral Hydrate : 

1. Occurs in white crystals, soluble in water. 

2. Quiets the nerves, relieves restlessness, takes away pain, pro- 
duces sleep. 

3. Useful drug when prescribed by the physician. 

4. The chloral habit, a dangerous habit to get into, of taking 
the drug to produce sleep ; also to relieve the depressing effects 
of the alcohol habit. 

5. Chloral habit causes nervousness, pale and yellow com- 
plexion, weakness, emaciation, indigestion, and ends in complete 
physical, mental, and moral wreck ; insanity. 

Absinthe — A strong alcoholic drink, flavored with oil of wormwood. 

1. Effects : Those of alcohol, and in addition, poisonous effects 
of wormwood upon nervous system. 

2. Absinthe habit prevalent in France, to less extent also in 
this country. 

3. Produces sort of unconsciousness or dreamy state. 

4. Absinthe habit results in serious injury to health, and may 
lead to convulsions, paralysis, and death. 

Hashish — An extract derived from Indian hemp ; used as narcotic 
by natives of India ; not used in this country. 

Chloroform — A fluid having pleasant odor ; inhaled like ether to 
produce unconsciousness so that operations can be performed 
without causing pain ; occasionally inhaled from habit to re- 
lieve pain or produce sleep ; this practice very dangerous. 



KABCOTICS. 209 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What are narcotics ? 2. Name tlie narcotics most frequently 
used ? 3. What is the effect of an over-dose ? 4. Is tobacco a nar- 
cotic ? 5. When does alcohol act as a narcotic ? 6. What is to- 
bacco ? 7. Where does it grow ? 8. What is the origin of the 
name ? 9. What is our earliest knowledge of tobacco ? 10. When 
and by whom was it introduced into France? 11. Into Eng- 
land ? 12. How is tobacco prepared ? 13. In what different ways is 
it used ? 14. What is the composition of tobacco ? 15. What are 
the effects uj)on the system when first used ? 16. Do these effects 
always continue? 17. What agreeable effects has tobacco upon 
some persons ? 18. Does it have such agreeable effects upon all 
persons? 19. Is it used as a medicine? 20. How is the tobacco 
habit acquired ? 21. Is it ever positively beneficial to adults ? 
22. Name some of the injurious effects upon the system ? 23. What 
is smokers' sore throat ? 24. How may the appetite and digestion 
suffer from tobacco? 25. What is tobacco heart? 26. What is to- 
bacco blindness? 27. What is tobacco nervousness. 28. What 
are the effects of tobacco upon young and growing persons ? 
29. What effect has it upon the growth, strength, and muscular and 
mental activity of young people ? 30. What influence has tobacco 
upon muscular strength and the power of endurance ? 31. Why is 
cigarette smoking especially injurious ? 32. What other objections 
are there to the tobacco habit ? 33. Illustrate how expensive the to- 
bacco habit is ? 34. What is opium ? 35: What is its appearance ? 
36. Where is it cultivated? 37. What is morphine? 38. From 
what is it derived ? 39. What are opiates ? 40. What is laudanum ? 
41. What is paregoric? 42. What is Dover's powder ? 43. What 
are the effects of opium and morphine ? 44. For what purposes 
are they valuable when prescribed by the physician ? 45. What 
happens when an over-dose is taken ? 46. What is the opium habit ? 
47. What is the morphine habit ? 48. Is the opium habit common ? 
49. What effect has it ? 50. Describe the horrors of this habit. 
51. What is an " opium fiend ? " 52. What are the results of this 
habit? 53. What is chloral or chloral hydrate ? 54. For what is it 
prescribed by physicians? 55. What are its physical properties? 
56. What effect has it upon the system ? 57. What is the chloral 



210 AJNTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AI^D HYGIENE. 

habit? 58. How is it acquired? 59. For what purpose do such 
persons use chloral ? 60. What are the results of the chloral habit ? 
61. What is frequently the end of this habit ? 62. What is ab- 
sinthe ? 63. What are its effects upon the system ? 64. What is 
the absinthe habit ? 65. Where does it exist principally ? 66. What 
are the results of the absinthe habit ? 67. What is hashish ? 
68. By whom is it used? 69. What are its effects? 70. What is 
chloroform ? 71. What are its physical properties ? 72. What are 
its uses? 73. What is the chloroform habit? 74. Why is it dan- 
gerous ? 




Fig. 77.— General View of the Nervous System in the Human Being. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 

Thus far the bony framework of the body and the 
muscles which cover and move the skeleton have been spoken 
of. The food and drink w^hich man should take and what be- 
comes of this have been considered ; also how this food is di- 
gested and taken up by the blood, forming new tissues. The 
heart and the blood-vessels which convey the blood to all parts 
of the body have been described. The lungs and breathing 
and the effects of pure and impure air, have been studied. 
Finally, the necessity of the body's having and keeping a cer- 
tain warmth has been spoken of. 

These functions are found in all animals, but they are 
not peculiar to animals for they also exist in plants. The w^ord 
function was defined to be the icoy^k which any part of the 
body does. All these different kinds of work that we have 
been studying, and which are necessary for animal life, are also 
found in plants. 

Similarity in the Structure of Plants and Ani- 
mals. — The plant has a framework which corresponds to our 
skeleton, though of course it is not made of lime. This can 
often be seen in leaves that have been in water a long time ; the 
soft parts have rotted away, leaving the stems and ribs of the 
leaf, as is shown in Fig. 78. In plants there is a soft, usually 
green matter to clothe this skeleton. Plants take in food and 
drink by their roots and by their leaves. They also breathe 
through pores in their leaves, and take in air and give it up as 
animals do. But from the air they take in the poisonous 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



213 



gases and give up pure oxygen. This is just the reverse 
of what animals do. It may be well to explain what pores 
are. They are the very small openings in the skin or in the 
coverings of leaves ; and are usually 
too small to be seen without a mi- 
croscope. 

Then again plants have sap, 
which serves as their blood. It is 
not of a red color as blood is, but 
like the blood in animals, it car- 
ries the nutritious juices to the 
different parts of the plant. There 
are tubes which carry the sap, 
just as blood-vessels do the blood. 
Finally, plants have a certain 
warmth of their own, just as ani- 
mals have ; not so great as in ani- 
mals, but if many plants are placed 
in a closed room, the air in this 
room after a time becomes com- 
paratively warm. 

Ahc^nrA nf N^rvniiQ ^ig, 78.— The Skeleton of a Leaf. 

MDSence OT INerVOUS After long-continued soaking in water, 

System in Plants.— Thus it will the soft part of the leaf has been re- 

J moved, leaving the woody portion 

be seen that plants have all the formmg the framework,which gives the 

■•- leaf its shape and strength. 

parts and the same functions that 

have been described in animals thus far. But now will be 
considered certain parts in animals which plants do not j)ossess, 
. the first and most important of which is the Nervous SyHem. 
Let us first see what is meant by the word system. It is a 
collection of tissues of the same kind. So that nervous system 
is a collection of nerves, or in other words, all the nerves of 
the body taken together are called the nervous system ; all 
the arteries taken together would be called the arterial sys- 
tem. All the muscles of the body are called the muscular sys- 
tern. 




214 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Most Perfect Nervous System in Man.— The 

nervous system is something peculiar to animals and does ]iot 
exist in plants. In animals there is a great difference in regard 
to how perfect this nervous system is. The higher the form of 
the animal, the more perfect is its nervous system. Man being 
the highest form of animal, his nervous system is much more 
developed than in any other animal. In some of the lowest 
animals it is very imperfect indeed. In other functions, such 
as respiration, circulation, and digestion, there are many classes 
of animals which are the equals of man ; but in the development 
of his nervous system man stands far ahead of all others. 

Function of the Nervous System- — The nervous 
system gives us information of the condition of the body and 
of what is going on around us, so that we can do what is best 
and avoid danger. It is also the work of the nervous system 
to connect the different organs of the body so that they will work 
in harmony. If it were not for the nervous system we should 
constantly be in danger of losing our lives. It enables us to 
feel, think, see, hear, etc., and in this way we avoid injury. 
When a large number of persons are working separately there 
must always be a head or chief to direct them. Imagine what 
disorder there would be in the class-room if every pupil did as 
he or she wished and there were no teacher. Think of an army 
of soldiers over which there was no general, and every soldier 
did as he wished ; how dreadful the confusion would be ! In 
the same way there would be great disorder among the oi'gans 
of our bodies if there was not something to connect them 
and to direct their work ; this is done through the nervous 
system. 

Divisions of the Nervous System. — We can divide 
the nervous system into certain parts, and these parts are all 
connected. We separate them only for the purpose of study. 

There is first the brain, the head or chief that superin- 
tends the entire work of the system, just as the superintendent 
of a railroad manages the running of all the trains. The brain 



THE JSTERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 

is placed in a rounded, bony box made by the bones of the 
skull, called the cranium. 

Next there is the spinal cord^ which is still very im- 
portant, though not so important as the brain. It is a sort of 
assistant to the brain, relieving it of a good deal of work, and 
also doing some work which the brain does not do. The spinal 
cord runs in the canal or tunnel which is in the back part of 
the spinal vertebrae. 

Finally, there are the nerves. These are sent out from 
the brain and from the spinal cord to different parts of the 
body ; and they also run in the opposite direction — from the 
various parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord. They 
are the messengers, or the telegraph wires, so to speak, which 
carry the wishes of the brain to the different parts of the body ; 
and they also carry messages from the different parts of the 
body to the brain. These different parts of the nervous system 
are illustrated in Figs. 77 and 83. 

Examples of the Action of the Nervous System. 
— The uses of the nervous system can best be understood by a 
few examples. Suppose a man is walking along the street and 
is about to cross the car-track. His ear hears the jingle of the 
bells and by means of a nerve sends a message to the brain ; 
the brain then sends an order along the nerves of the eyes to 
these organs to look in the direction in which the ear has heard 
the sound and to see whether a car is approaching. The eyes 
obey the orders of the brain and look and see the car very near, 
and also perceive that the person is in danger of being run 
over. They immediately send back word to the brain about 
this danger. Then the brain sends w^ord to the muscles which 
move his legs ; this message is also transmitted by nerves ; it 
tells these muscles to act immediately. The result is that they 
obey; he quickens his steps and thus escapes the coming 
car. 

Let us take another example. Suppose it is time for 
the noon recess ; you have taken your breakfast early in the 



216 AINTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AI^D HYGIENE: 

morning and have had no food since. The stomach sends a 
message to the brain that it has been empty for some time ; 
and the tissues also send messages by numerous nerves that 
they would like more nourishment since they have exhausted 
all that the blood had to give them. Upon receiving these 
messages, which, in short, mean that you are hungry, the brain 
gives out its orders. It directs the legs to carry you home as 
soon as school is dismissed ; it directs them to take you to 
the dining-room and to seat you at the table ; it directs the 
eyes to look at the food and see whether it is wholesome ; it 
orders the hands to seize knife and fork and to convey food 
to the mouth ; the jaws are directed to chew it, the throat 
to swallow it and the stomach to digest it. All this the brain 
does. 

Rapidity of Action of the Nervous System.— It 
has taken a little while to describe these two examples of the 
manner in which the nervous system acts, but it must not be 
imagined from this that so much time is consumed. All these 
messages are sent back and forth with lightning-like rapidity, 
and it takes only a very small part of a second for a message to 
travel from the tip of the finger to the brain and back again. 

THE BRAIN. 

Coverings. — The brain is a large, rounded mass of 
soft nervous tissue which is contained in the oval box of bones 
formed by the skull. These flat bones which cover it protect 
it from injury. Besides these, it is covered on the inside of the 
skull by three membranes or sheets of tissue ; and it is therefore 
very well protected. 

Size and Weight of the Brain.— The brain is about 
eight inches long. If looked at from above (Fig. 79) it appears 
hemispherical; if viewed on its under surface (Fig. 80) it isjlat. 
It weighs about forty-seven ounces — about three pounds on the 
average. The brain of a man is larger and weighs more than 



THE ISTERVOUS SYSTEM. 217 

that of a woman. It was formerly thought that highly educated 
persons had very heavy brains, but this is not so in every case. 
It is true in certain cases, however, for the brain of Daniel 
Webster weighed sixty- three ounces. On the other hand, the 
brain of Gambetta, who was one of the brightest statesmen 




Fig. 79.— The Brain, Upper Surface. 

France ever had, was said to weigh only thirty- five ounces. So 
that there are exceptions to this opinion. However, the brains 
of idiots are always small and light in weight. It will be ex- 
plained further on in what way the brain of a very intelligent 
man differs from that of an idiot. The human brain is heavier 
than that of any other animal except the whale and the ele^ 
phant. 



218 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AI^D HYGIENE. 



Divisions of the Brain.— The brain is divided into 
three parts : First, the large, round mass called the cerebrum, 
which you see when you look at it from above, and which 
forms about seven-eightlis of the entire brain (Figs. 79, 80, 
81, and 83). 




Fig. 80.— The Brain, Lower Surface. 



Then beneath the cerebrum, at the back part, is the 
cerebellum, or little brain, a smaller portion, looking like two 
pouches, and forming only one-eighth of the entire brain (Figs. 
80, 81, and 83). 

Third, there is the portion, called the medulla, which is 
a sort of bridge between the brain and spinal cord (Figs. 81 
and 83). 



THE ISTERYOUS SYSTEM. 219 

The Cerebrum. — As already stated, this is the main 
part of the braio. If you look at it from above you will see 
that it dips in along the centre, and you will find this cleft 
to be quite deep, separating the brain into two halves, called 
the hemispheres — a very appropriate name. The surface of the 
cerebrum is very uneven, due to the fact that it is covered by 
a great many windiug elevations, between which the surface 




Fig. 81. — The Brain, Looked at from the Side, Showing Very Nicely the Divisions of the 
Brain. The large mass above is the cerebrum ; the smaller portion, below and behind, is 
the cerebellum. From the cerebrum above, a cylindrical portion is seen passing directly 
downward to the end of the illustration below ; this is the medulla. The cerebellum is seen 
to be connected with its upper and back part. 

clips in about an inch. In a person whose brain is very much 
developed and who is very bright, these elevations are very 
winding and complex, and between them the brain matter dips 
in very much ; while in the lower animals the elevations are 
quite straight and simple, and there is very little dipping in 
between them. 

Gray and White Parts of the Cerebrum.— On the 
outside the cerebrum is gray, but internally it is white. The 



2?0 AT^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIS-D HYGIEISTE. 



gray part consists of cells, that is, small bodies with a number 
of branches given off from them, which connect with the nerve- 
fibres. The interior of the cerebrum is white, and is formed 

by millions of nerve-fibres (Fig. 

82). 

The Cerebellum. — 

This, like the cerebrum, is gray 

on the outside and white within. 

* 

It is much smaller than the ce- 
rebrum, and is placed behind 
and below it, being covered up 
by it (Figs. 81 and 83). 

The Medulla (Figs. 81 
and 83) serves to connect the 
brain with the spinal cord. It 
is very important. There is one 
part of it to which any injury 
will produce instant death. 

The Cranial Nerves. 
— What is a nerve? A nerve 
is a collection of nerve-fibres 
forming a small cord. These 
nerve-fibres are very small, and 
can be seen only with the microscope. But when a great many 
of them run alongside of each other they are joined into a 
bundle, and this we call a nerve. Some nerves are very large 
and others quite small. At the ends, where they pass to the 
tissues, they are very small indeed. 

The brain gives off twelve sets of nerves, and these all 
pass to the tissues of the head and face. They are important, 
for among them are the nerves of smell, taste, sight, and hear- 
ing. There are small holes in the bones of the skull by which 
these nerves pass out. It has already been stated that the 
cranium is the bony box in which the brain is contained ; 
hence these nerves are called cranial, because they come from 




Fig. 82.— a Portion of the Cerebrum 
Cut Across, Showing the Gray Border on 
the Outside and the White Matter Within. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 221 

this bony box. They are arranged in pairs, one behind the 
other ; on which account they are often called in numerical 
order, first, second, third, etc. 

Functions of the Brain. — The brain is the seat of the 
mind, of the will, of thought, of memory, and of intelligence. It 
is through the brain that we are rendered superior to the lower 
animals. The lower animals accomplish different actions 
through what we call instinct, that is, without the action of 
the mind. But we can do many more things than they, and 
more difficult acts, because our brains are more developed. 

Let us examine the work of the brain and see what it 
does for us : In the first place, it is where the will exists ; it is 
where our desires come from. Then as to memory, it is the 
brain which enables us to think about things and to remember 
names, figures, faces, and all other things. Imagine how useful 
this is and how difficult it would be to get along without it ! 
Think also of the wonderful action of the brain when it is pos- 
sible to remember things all our lives 1 

The brain gives us reason, so that when we see a thing 
we know what it means and whether it is important or not. It 
gives us jadgm,ent which enables us to do the right thing in 
order to accomplish what we want. ' 

Intelligence has its seat in the brain. This prevents 
us from being stupid ; and enables us to understand things and 
to express ourselves just as we wish by language. It enables 
us to see the difference between right and wrong, so as to avoid 
the latter. 

Training of the Brain. — Much of our memory and 
intelligence depends upon the way in which our brain is trained. 
If we use our brain a great deal, it will become better than if 
we allow it to remain idle. Many things which we study at 
school are taught us for the purpose of training the brain. We 
should remember that w^e cannot think of more than one thing 
at a time. When you study your lessons, you should not think 
of play; and when you play, you should enjoy yourself, and 



222 AT^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 




Fio. 83.— The Brain and Spinal Cord, with the Spinal Nerves Issuing from the Latter. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



223 



need not think of your studies. There is a time for play and a 
time for study. 



THE SPINAL CORD. 



The spinal cord is the soft bar of nerve-tissue which 
runs down from the brain through the canal of the backbone. 
In adults it is about as thick as the thumb. Besides being 
protected by bone , it has, like the brain, a covering of three 
membranes. While the spinal cord is not so important a 
part of the nervous system as the brain is, it is still very 
important, especially that part which runs through the neck. 
One sometimes hears of people falling down stairs and break- 
ing their neck. What is meant by this is that this upper 
part of the spinal cord is broken across and death occurs im- 
mediately. 

If the spinal cord be sliced crosswise it would be seen 
that although it is white on the outside, it is grat/ on the in-^ 
side. This gray matter in the 
interior is arranged in a pe- 
culiar manner, resembling two 
crescents joined together, as is 
shown in Fig. 84. As in the 
brain, this gray part is formed 
of cells, while the white portion 
consists of nerve-fibres. 

Spinal Nerves-— The ^, cat, * .. o ^n ^ 

•^ Fig 84.— a Portion of the Spinal Cord 

nerves which leave the brain are CutAoios*, showing the GiavCie^centsm 

the Intel lor, Sui rounded by the White 

called cranial nerves ; and those Nerve Material. 
which leave the spinal cord are called, in the same way, spinal 
nerves. There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves ; and they 
are connected to the side of the spinal cord in a line. Each 
nerve when it leaves the spinal cord consists of two parts, 
one in front and the other behind ; but these two portions 
soon unite to form a simple nerve. 




224 



ANATOMY, PHYSrOLOCrY, AKD HYGIENE. 



Kinds of Nerves. — There are two kinds of nerves — 
the nerves of sensation and the nerves of motion. The nerves 
of sensation are those which give feeling to different 
parts of the body and especially to the skin. When 
you cut or burn yourself it is a nerve of sensation 
which carries the message of pain to the brain. 
The nerves of motion are those nerves which go to 
the different muscles and cause them to act when 
the brain wishes it. 

Functions of the Spinal Cord.— The 
spinal cord is a sort of agent or assistant to the brain, 
and it also serves to carry the large number of 
nerve-fibres which leave the brain, travel through 
the spinal cord and then to the limbs. But besides 
this, the spinal cord has a very important use. 
When the brain is engaged at something else, the 
spinal cord takes its place, and acts for it if any oc- 
casion arises. 

Reflex Action. — This action without the 

knowledge of the brain is called reflex action, and 

it is the spinal cord which carries it out. Let us 

Mfd?Tp^^Jf ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^ examples of reflex action : Suppose you 



Fig. 85.— a 
Nerve, Very 
Highly Mag- 
nified, Show- 



Numerous 
Nerve-fibres. 



Your brain 



want to go to school in the morning, 
directs the muscles of your lower limbs to move in 
such a manner that you walk. But after you have started 
walking, you do not need to think about it ; perhaps you reach 
school and have crossed many streets and have turned many 
corners without knowing it. It was the spinal cord which 
looked out for all this. 

If a fly alights upon your face, you put up your hand 
to brush it off, without really thinking of it. This is another 
example. 

During sleep, reflex action is shown very well. If you 
tickle the feet of anyone who is asleep, he will draw up his 
lower limbs so as to draw them away ; all of which will be done 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 

without his waking. It is the spinal cord which looks after 
this. In the same way, if you walk along, thinking of some- 
thing else, and suddenly someone appears before you and 
makes a motion as though to strike you, you will draw up your 
arm to protect yourself before you can realize that anyone is 
there. If some one makes believe strike you in the face, you 
cannot help closing your eyes, and you cannot keep them open 
even if you want to. This is reflex action. It is also reflex 
action which explains how it is that a chicken can run around 
after its head is chopped off. 

Sleep. — Sleep is the natural rest of the brain. Just as 
every other part of the body needs rest during each twenty-four 
hours, so does the brain. In fact, many other parts of the body 
can exist longer without rest than can the brain. We may 
rest any other part of the body without sleep ; but the only 
sign that the brain is resting completely, and is not active, is 
sleep. 

The Amount of Sleep which is necessary varies 
with different people. Men who think a great deal require 
more than those who do bodily work. The average sleep neces- 
sary for a man is from seven to eight hours. 

Children require more Sleep and should have 
nine or ten hours^ for while the body is growing rapidly more 
rest is needed. 

Uses of Sleep. — During sleep the brain and all other 
parts of the body rest and regain the strength which they have 
lost by the day's work. 

Time for S\eQ^.— Night is the time for sleep. Per- 
sons who work at night and sleep by day are not usually quite 
so bright and healthy as those who sleep during the natural 
time. Young people who dance all night and then sleep by 
day to make up for it, soon look pale and tired out, and often 
weaken their bodies so much that they become sick. The 
proper time for children to go to bed is fi'om eight to nine 
o'clock, and they should then rise at six or seven. 



226 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Nervousness. — We often hear people say they are 
nervous. By this they mean that their nervous system is out 
of order. They start at the least noise, and become cross and 
irritable, while the rest of the body suffers. Nervousness is 
often due to too little sleep or too much excitement. Very 
often, too, it is due to indigestion, or to coffee, tea, or tobacco, 
or alcoholic drinks. When we are nervous we are apt to do 
things in haste, and are apt to talk in a cross manner and to get 
angry easily. 

Wakefulness. — When unable to sleep at night, we are 
said to suffer from sleeplessness or wakefulness. Lying awake 
at night when all is quiet and everyoue else is asleep is very 
annoying. Not only does the body remain tired after the day's 
work, but the person becomes worried and cross because he 
cannot sleep. There are, of course, many causes of sleepless- 
ness, but some of the most common are laziness, coffee, tea, and 
tobacco. It is quite natural for us to feel somewhat tired at 
night, and then we have no trouble in falling asleep ; but if we 
are idle all day long, we do not feel tired, and on this account 
we may find it hard to fall asleep. Coffee, tea, and tobacco ex- 
cite the nervous system, and on this account may prevent sleep. 
Effects of Alcohol upon the Brain.— The brain is the 
organ that is most quickly affected by alcoholic drinks. Peo- 
ple who take their first glass of beer or hard cider or whiskey 
say that it '' goes to their head." They feel a sense of dizzi- 
ness, and the floor seems to rise. They cannot put their feet 
down straight, and if they try to w^alk they are apt to fall. 
This is because the blood, as soon as the controlling nerves of 
the circulation are affected, rushes to the brain and spinal 
cord just as it does to the face, but whereas it only heats the 
face, it acts on the delicate cells of the brain and cord, and 
excites them. In many people this gives a feeling of exhilara- 
tion. They say they feel toned up. But the brain is so deli- 
cately constructed that it must have just the right amount of 
blood. If its supply is suddenly withdrawn, a person faints ; 
ii the supply is suddenly increased he becomes excited. When 



THE KERYOUS SYSTEM. 



227 



a person is intoxicated his brain gets an increased amount of 
blood and the poisonous effect of alcohol as well. His actions 
and speech are then like those of an insane person, until he 
reaches the stage where stupefaction and sleep overcome him. 
Another condition that the brain requires is that the 
blood which is brought to it should be well supplied with 
oxygen and perfectly pure, but the blood of a man who has 
taken any alcoholic drink does not contain so much oxygen slb 




-'/ 



I' /^ J) 



Normal Ganglion Cell of Spinal Cord. 



it ought, and it is charged with a poison that irritates the del- 
icate nerves and tissues. 

Alcohol affects the cerebrum, which is the seat of thought 
and reason, much more quickly than the cerebellum, which is 
the seat of movement and action ; therefore the moral sense 
^eems to be lost, and a man will do violent deeds and brutal 



228 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



acts which he would never dream of doing were he not tem- 
porarily out of his right mind. 

His ability to do mental work is also affected. Careful 
tests with delicate apparatus show that more time is required 
to receive and respond to a given signal after alcohol is taken 
than before. 

The fact that some mental workers of recognized ability 
have been moderate driakers, does not show that alcohol has 
helped them, and against their example we have the testimony 
of such men as Helmholtz, a mental worker of prodigious 
achievements, who said that the smallest quantity of alcoholic 
beverages seemed to frighten away "the ideas flashing up from 
the depths of the unknown soul." Hon. A. D. White, our 




Alcohol Poisoned Ganglion Cell of Spinal Cord. 

Minister to the court of Germany and ex-Minister to Russia, 
said of the use of such beverages, "I can conceive of no worse 
preparation for literary work." Profs. Fick and Bunge ex- 
plain this when they say that alcohol "weakens the critical' 
powers of the mind," and lessens "the control over a train of 
thought." 

Effects of Alcohol on the Spinal Cord.— The 
nerves, which receive their impulses from the brain through 
the spinal cord, suffer with the brain ; for the ganglion cells 
are so delicate and so dependent on constant supplies of 
fresh blood, that when the blood comes poisoned with al- 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 

cohol, the fine cells become altered in their composition and 
are unable to control the moYement of the muscles. Then 
a person has a peculiar trembling of the hands and limbs, a 
twitching of the muscles of the face, and a strong sense of 
uneasiness and restlessness which he calls nervousness. This 
does not Avear off readily, for the nerves are extremely delicate 
and sensitive ; they are the most highly organized part of the 
, body, and when they become worn out or diseased by the ter- 
rible strain put upon them by the effects of alcohol, they do 
not recover for months, sometimes years. 

The nerves and the brain are so intimately connected 
that a man who is a '* nervous wreck " is often not far from 
the insane asylum. Statistics show that the greater propor- 
tion of the insane have become so through drink, either by 
their own indulgence or from nervous and mental weakness 
inherited from their parents who were drinkers. 

One of the latest authorities (Twentieth Century Practice) 
on the subject of alcoholism in this country makes the follow- 
ing statement : " It has long been a matter of observation 
that the man or woman who has a paroxysm of intoxication 
for a day or two once a month, but who does not drink be- 
tween times, does less injury to body and brain by alcoholic 
toxicity (though he may run more risk of accident while in- 
toxicated) than the steady, free, 'moderate drinker,' so called, 
w^ho, with his four or five daily doses keeps his whole system 
continuously under the poisonous influence. 'Soaking' or 
saturating the blood daily with the poison for a long series of 
years does more damage to the human constitution than a 
periodic bout." 

Hereditary Influence of Alcohol on the Brain and 
Nervous System. — By heredity is meant the handing 
down from father to son of certain characteristics of the body 
or of the mind. This is easily seen in the features of the face, 
and the first thing that people look for in a little child is to 
see whether its eyes and nose and mouth are like those of its 



230 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AISTD HYGIEN^E. 

father or its mother. Some personal characteristics are also 
easily seen, as for instance, a quick temper, a ready wit, or a 
good memory; but there are other inherited peculiarities 
which are not seen at first sight. For instance, the children 
of consumptive parents inherit weak lungs, and are very apt 
to contract consumption. Of all diseases those caused by al- 
cohol and those accompanying the alcoholic habit are not only 
most likely to be inherited but are most pernicious. 

The uncontrollable desire for strong drink can be inher- 
ited, so that as soon as the son of a drunkard tastes it the 
craving may be aroused, just as the first taste of human blood 
excited the lion's whelp, which a keeper had kept as a pet, and 
though he had hitherto been as tame as a dog, when the ap- 
petite was aroused he killed his master. 

The history of most large cities shows that new families 
are constantly growing to power and wealth from strong and 
healthy but humble stock. The father makes his fortune by 
hard work, and a careful abstemious life. His children, ac- 
customed to luxury and society, often form habits of smoking 
and drinking, and their children — the third generation — 
born with alcoholic tastes, which they perhaps freely in- 
dulge, are apt to go rapidly down hill and become common 
drunkards. 

Considering the terrible inheritance of alcohol, when the 
question of marriage arises, every young woman should realize 
that a man who drinks may not only give his children an in- 
herited taste for liquor, but by his example may make them 
so familiar with it that they will taste it in their youth, and 
the craving may be aroused. Careful medical research has 
shown that alcohol produces a nervous state similar to that 
caused by severe diseases, and that nearly all of the organs 
of the body are weakened by it ; the weakness in these organs 
may be handed down to the children of parents who drink. 
Very often such children die when they are born, or in early 
childhood, for they have poor constitutions. If they grow up 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 

and live careful, temperate lives they may outgrow their 
weaknesses, but if they are influenced by their parents' habits, 
and begin to drink, they are apt to contract kidney disease or 
liver trouble or consumption, or some disease which the alco- 
hol aggravates in a body that has such hereditary weaknesses. 
If they live to marry, and are drunkards of the second or third 
generation, their children are apt to die young ; thus, a family 
cursed with alcohol seldom produces drunkards past the fourth 
generation, and it is said that it " runs out." The fact that 
the inherited effects of alcohol are limited to three or four gen- 
erations, by killing a family off by its various accompanying 
diseases and poverty, does not in the least limit the wide- 
spread growth of the habit, for each drunkard, by reason of 
his social habits, starts other families on the downward path. 

There is a more terrible inheritance than drunkenness 
itself following the use of alcohol, and that is insanity, idiocy, 
epilepsy, and certain diseases of the spinal cord or brain that 
produce paralysis or loss of power, so that often the innocent 
children of alcoholic parents are afflicted with some incurable 
disease. It is held by some authorities that one-third of the 
cases of insanity in this country are caused by alcohol, and 
about one-half of the idiots are children of intemperate par- 
ents. In one family where both the parents were drunkards 
seven of the children were idiots. It is, however, impossible 
to get full statistics on these facts, because the weakness and 
the poverty to which the children of drunken parents are born 
cause a large proportion of them to die in their infancy. 

So much, however, has been written upon disease inher- 
itance that a man is apt to say, "I have inherited this taste 
for drink, and nothing can cure me. " But one must not mis- 
take the inheriting a tendency to a disease for inheriting the 
disease itself. A man may inherit an appetite or a desire for 
drink which, if gratified, would make him a drunkard, but he 
does not inherit drunkenness, and although he may have 
drunken parents, the chances are that if he is brought up as 



232 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

an abstainer, and has strength of will to refuse to begin the 
habit of taking even a very small amount of liquor, he will 
never become a drunkard. Further, by appropriate, sound 
wholesome fare and regular moderate hygienic exercises, his 
system may be so strengthened and fortified as to throw off 
these transmitted tendencies. 

Even though the patient may have a direct alcoholic or 
other inebriate ancestry of two or more generations back, he 
need not despair. Time and time again cases are seen where 
the gravest family history as to inebriety is present and with 
other serious neurotic family inheritances, yet these handi- 
capped persons by strong will-power have kept the diseased 
craving away and have lived noble and helpful lives both for 
themselves and the community, and have brought healthy 
normal children into the world. 

Effects of Tobacco upon the Nervous System.— 
The nicotine of tobacco has a peculiar, deadening effect upon 
the delicate structure of the nerves, that produces a sort of 
exhaustion. This is the half-sleepy feeling that leads the 
smoker to say tobacco has "a soothing effect upon his nerves." 
Its after-effect, however, is to make him irritable and ner- 
vous, to cause his hands to tremble and his muscles to twitch. 

Effects of Coffee and Tea upon the Nervous 
System.— Coffee and tea excite the nervous system. They 
are often the cause of nervousness and trembling ; also of pal- 
pitation of the heart, which is a form of nervousness. Chil- 
dren should not drink coffee or tea, and probably most grown 
people would be better without them. 

The Sympathetic System of Nerves,— Besides the 
great nervous system to which this chapter has been devoted, 
there is a smaller collection of nerves, which is known as the 
sympathetic system. Along the front of the backbone are found 
two nerves, with many knob-like enlargements at numerous 
points. This is the central part of the sympathetic system, 
from which the branches of this system are given off. Unlike 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 

the nerves of the general nervous system, which pass to the 
outside of the body and to parts which are subject to our will, 
the branches of the sympathetic system pass to the internal 
organs which cannot be controlled by our will, and which are 
therefore called mvoluntary. The sympathetic system serves 
to connect the internal organs so as to make them act in har- 
m^ony. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The Nervous System : 

1. Present in animals, but not in plants. 

2. Functions : 

a. To give information in regard to the condition of va- 
rious parts of the body. 

b. To give information of what is going on around us, so 
that we can act accordingly, and can avoid danger. 

c. To connect the different organs of the body, so that 
they can act in harmony. 

3. Divisions : 

a. The general nervous system; nerves passing to ex- 
ternal parts, and those controlled by our will. 

b. The sympathetic nervous system ; main part arranged 
in two chains, with knob-like enlargements along the front 
of the vertebral column ; from these branches are given 
off; branches pass to internal organs which are not under 
control of the will — involuntary. 

The General Nervous System : 
Divisions : 
A, Brain: 

1. Coverings : 

a. Membranes. 

b. Bones forming cranium. 

2. Shape — hemispherical. 

3. Size — about eight inches long. 

4. Weight — a. Average about forty-seven ounces.. 

b. Heavier in man than in woman. 

c. Very light in idiots. 



234 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

d. Weighs more in man than in any other ani- 
mal, except the whale and elephant. 

e. In some cases, weight is proportionate to in- 
telligence. 

5. Gives off the cranial nerves. 

6. Natural rest — Sleep : 

a. Necessary amoant varies. 

b. Hard work necessitates more. 

c. Average for man, seven to eight hours. 

d. Children require more, nine to ten hours. 

e. Use, to give body, and especially brain, a 
complete rest. 

/. Proper time, at night. 

g. Disordered sleep — wakefulness — may be due 
to laziness, tea, coffee, or tobacco. 

7. Divisions: 

a. Cerebrum : 

1. Largest part of brain (seven-eighths). 

2. Large, round mass. 

3. Divided into halves, called hemispheres. 

4. Surface uneven, owing to winding eleva- 
tions, between which the surface dips in. 

5. The height of these elevations and de- 
pressions is proportionate to the intelligence. 

6. Exterior gray and formed largely of 
cells. 

7. Interior white, and formed entirely of 
nerve-fibres. 

8. Controls mind, will, thought, memory, 
and intelligence. 

9. Gives reason and judgment, elevating 
man above the lower animals. 

10. Admits of training. 

b. Cerebellum, or little brain. 

1. Much smaller than cerebrum. 

2. Forms one-eighth entire brain. 

3. Forms lower and hind part of brain. 

4. Like cerebrum, is gray on outside and 
white within. 



THE IS^ERYOUS SYSTEM. 235 

c. Medulla: 

1. Connection between brain and spinal cord. 

2. Very important part, since injury to one 
portion causes instant death. 

B. Spinal Cord : 

1. Long bar of nerve-tissue. 

2. Protected by : a, membranes. 

5, bones forming vertebral column. 

3. Interior formed of gray matter, arranged in cres- 
cents, and composed largely of cells. 

4. Outside is white and formed of nerve-fibres. 

5. Gives off the spinal nerves. 

6. Acts as an agent or assistant to the brain. 

7. Controls reflex action — action without the knowl- 
edge of the brain, serving to protect us from injury. 

C. Nerves : 

Divisions : 

1. According to action : a, sensation ; h, motion. 

(1.) Nerves of sensation, carrying impres- 
sions of feeling, such as pain, etc., from the 
surface to the brain and spinal cord. 

(2.) Nerves of motion, carrying messages 
from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, 
and causing these to act. 

2. According to source : a, cranial ; h, spinal. 

(1.) Cranial nerves, twelve pairs, pass from 
brain, through openings in bone, to various 
parts of the head and neck. 

(2.) Spinal nerves, thirty-one pairs, emerge 
from spinal cord by two roots, which soon join 
together, pass to different parts of the trunk 
and limbs. 
Disorders of the Nervous System, due to : 

1. Coffee and Tea : 

a. Often excite nervousness, trembling, etc. 
h. Children should not be allowed any. 

2. Tobacco — Often causes nervousness, trembling, etc. 

3. Alcohol. 

a. Great enemy to nervous system. 



236 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

h. Sensations of dizziness, caused bjrush of blood to head. 
\ Feelings of exhilaration followed by insane actions, 
d. Brain-cells irritated by alcohol. 
:. Water of brain absorbed, and tissues hardened. 
/. Loss of memory, and weakened intellectual powers. 
Effect on Nerves : 

a. Loss of water from nerve-pulp. 
h. Lack of muscular control, 
c. General nervous wreck, leading to insanity. 
Effect of Tobacco upon Nervous System : 

Nicotine has a deadening effect upon nerve-pulp, and causes 
a soothing feeling, followed by irritability. 
The Sympathetic Nervous System — Smaller than general nervous 
system — Central or main part extends along the front of spinal 
column — Branches pass to internal, involuntary organs. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What different parts are found in plants as well as in animals? 
2. What is the skeleton of a leaf ? 3. Do plants take in food and 
drink? 4. How? 5. How do plants breathe ? 6. What difference 
is there in the breathing of plants and of animals ? 7. What are 
pores? 8. What fluid is there in plants corresponding to the blood 
of animals? 9. How is the sap carried along? 10. Do plants have 
any warmth of their own ? 11. How can you prove this ? 12. What 
part of animals is absent in plants ? 13. What is a system ? 14. Give 
an example. 15. Does the nervous system exist in plants ? 16. In 
what animal is there the highest form of nervous system ? 17. What 
is the function of the nervous system ? 18. What might happen if 
we did not have a nervous system ? 19. Give an example to show 
that there must be a chief to everything where there are many parts. 
20. Into what parts can we divide the nervous system? 21. What is 
the office of the brain ? 22. What of the spinal cord ? 23. What of 
the nerves ? 24. Give an example of the action of the nervous sys- 
tem. 25. Does it take the nervous system a long time to act ? 26. 
Give an example to show how quickly it acts. 27. Where is the 
brain situated ? 28. What protects it ? 29. Is it soft or hard? 30. 
What is its form? 31. What is its size? 32. What is its weight? 
33. Is it heavier in man or in woman ? 34. Does its weight depend 
upon the intelligence of the person? 35. Give examples. 36. What 
can you say about the brains of idiots ? 37. Into what parts can the 
brain be divided ? 38. Where is the cerebrum ? 39. What are the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 237 

hemispheres ? 40. What can you say about the surface of the cere- 
brum ? 41. What is peculiar about the surface of the cerebrum in very 
intelligent persons ? 42. How is it different in the lower animals ? 
43. What is the color of the cerebrum on the exterior ? 44. What is 
the color of the interior ? 45. Of what does the gray matter consist ? 
46. Of what does the white matter consist ? 47. Describe the cere- 
bellum. 48. Describe the medulla. 49. Why is it very important ? 
50. What is a nerve? 51. Where are the cranial nerves ? 52. To 
what are they attached? 53. Name the functions of the brain. 54. 
What is meant by doing things ** by instinct?" 55. Where does 
the will exist ? 56. What is meant by memory ? 57. What is intel- 
ligence ? 58. What is reason ? 59. What is judgment ? 60. How 
can we train the brain ? 61. What is the spinal cord ? 62. How is 
it protected ? 63. What is meant by *' breaking the neck ? " 64. 
Of what is the spinal cord formed? 65. How does it look inside ? 
66. What are the spinal nerves? 67. How many are there? 68. 
How do they leave the spinal cord ? 69. What two kinds of nerves 
are there? 70. What are the functions of the spinal cord? 71. 
What is reflex action ? 72. Give an example of reflex action. 73. 
Of what use is reflex action ? 74. What is sleep ? 75. How must 
the brain be rested? 76. What is the average amount of sleep re- 
quired for a man? 77. How much for a child? 78. What are the 
uses of sleep? 79. What is the proper time for sleep ? 80. When 
should children goto bed? 81. When should they rise ? 82. What 
is nervousness ? 83. What is nervousness due to ? 84. What is 
wakefulness? 85. What are some of the most common causes? 86. 
Is it natural for us to feel a little tired at night ? 87. Why can some 
persons who are idle all day long not sleep at night ? 88. How do 
coffee, tea, and tobacco act on the nervous system ? 89. What effect 
has alcohol upon the nervous system ? 90. How is the brain affected 
in drunkenness ? 91 . How are the nerves affected ? 92. What ef- 
fect has tobacco on the nervous system ? 93. What effect have 
coffee and tea on the nervous 'system ? 94. What is the sympa- 
thetic system of nerves ? 95. What is the function of the sympa- 
thetic system ? 96. What is its arrangement ? 97. To what parts 
is the sympathetic system distributed ? 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE SENSES. 

There are certain organs in the body which add a great 
deal to our comfort and enjoyment and give us knowledge and 
pleasure. The functions of these organs are called the senses. 
There are five of them. 

1. Touch — The skin. 

2. Taste — The tongue. 

3. Smell — The nose. 

4. Sight— The eye. 

5. Hearing. — The ear. 

Special Senses, — They are often called the special 
senses because each one has a special duty to perform and can- 
not be used for anything else ; as, for instance, our eyes can be 
used for seeing only. The skin is the only one of these organs 
which is necessary to life ; and it is an organ of general rather 
than of special sense. 

THE SENSE OF TOUCH— THE SKIN. 

Thickness. — The skin forms a soft, elastic layer which 
covers the entire body. It is not of the same thickness in all 
places. It is thick at certain places where the body is very 
much exposed or where there is much friction, as in the palms 
of the hands and the soles of the feet. In other places which 
are more protected, it is quite thin ; as, for instance, the inner 
side of the arm. 

Uses of the Skin. — As has already been stated, the 
skin is necessary to life. In certain accidents, in which a per» 



THE SENSES. 239 

son has burnt or scalded himself severely, he may die because 
too much of the skin has been lost. There are four principal 
uses of the skin : (1) As a protection to the entire body ; (2) 
as the organ of sensation or feeling ; (3) to throw off water, 
salts, and poisonous matter from the body ; (4) to regulate the 

• bodily warmth. 

The Skin as the Organ of Sensation or Feeling. 
— The nerves of sensation or feeling end in the skin in little 
knobs, which are the portions with which we feel the different 
sensations, such as heat, cold, smoothness, roughness, pain, etc. 
Some parts of the body are more sensitive than others. This 
is because they have a greater supply of these nerves. These 
same nerves also give rise to pain, which is useful, as it pro- 
tects the body, and tells you when to be careful. If you are 
holding a lighted match in your fingers, you wall drop it as 
soon as it burns down to your finger-tips because there is pain. 
If there were no pain to warn you, the ends of the fingers might 
have been burnt off before you were aware of it. With these 
nerves we are enabled to feel whether anything is smooth or 
rough, sharp or dull, cold or warm, soft or hard. The finger- 
tips are intended as the organs' of touch. In the blind, the 
sense of touch becomes very much developed, and such persons 
can be trained to do wonderful things by means of the fingers. 
The books of the blind are printed with letters which are slightly 
raised ; and it is marvellous how quickly they can spell the 
words by means of their fingers. 

Throwing off Water, Salts, and Poisonous Mat. 

.ters. — This is a very important use of the skin. If an animal 
were to be covered with paint or varnish so as to close all the 
pores, death would result in a short time. 

Regulating the Bodily Warmth- — The skin serves 
an important purpose in regulating the bodily warmth. It 
does this by increasing or diminishing the amount of perspira- 
tion, thus cooling the body in summer by permitting free 
perspiration. 



240 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Structure of the Skin.— The skin is formed of two 
layers (Fig. 86). The outside layer is called the scarf skin, the 
deeper one the true skin. 

The scarf skin is formed 
of a great many scales or ll.it 
cells covering each other ; and 
these cells are being constantly 
rubbed away and cast off, and are 
then replaced by new ones. In 
taking a bath, for instance, it will 
be noticed that in drying a little 
of the skin comes off. This mate- 
rial is formed of the dead cells 
which are cast off. The scarf 
skin of the scalp is often cast off 
in small scales which we call dan- 
druff^. This throwing off of these 

- - , , . p ,1 IT Fig. 86.— A Piece of Skin as Seen Under 

scales irom the Skm OI the body the Microscope, d, The layers of flat cells 

. , , n i.1 J* T • forming upper layer of the scarf skin ; c, 

takes place all the time and is deeper layer of scarf skin ; 6, projections 

• IT 1 .1 « of true skin. 

natural. In snakes the scart 

skin is thrown off in one piece and forms the very pretty tubes 

sometimes found in the fields. 

The true skin is the part which contains the blood-ves- 
sels and the nerves ; also the roots of the hair, the perspiration 
tubes, and the oil tubes. If you burn yourself, a blister forms, 
which separates the scarf skin from the true skin ; if you lift 
up the blister, the red part you see underneath is the true 
skin. The true skin is not perfectly smooth, but has a number 
of small projections upon it. But these do not appear on the 
surface of the skin because the cells of the scarf skin fill out 
the uneven places (Fig. 86). 

Color of the Skin. — The skin is colored differently 
in different parts of the body. It is darker, for instance, on 
the back of the hand than on the arm. Some persons have very 
light-colored skin and are said to have a fair complexion, and 



THE SENSES. 241 

these usually have blonde hair. Others have dark complexions 
and usually have hair of a dark shade. In the negro, the skin 
is dark brown. This difference in the color of the skin depends 
upon the amount of coloring matter which is found in the true 
skin. In white people there is very little of this, in the negro 
there is a great deal of it in the form of small dark brown grains. 

If you look at the skin of the palms of the hands, espe- 
cially at the finger tips, you will see fine lines arranged in cir- 
cles. If you examine these with a magnifying glass it will be 
seen that the lines are raised, and it is here that the nerves of 
feeling end in great numbers. 

Attachments of the Skin- — Upon examining the 
skin, we find in it, or attached to it, certain parts : Perspira* 
Hon tubes, oil tabes, hairs, and, in certain parts, nails. 

The Perspiration Tubes- — These are the small tubes 
in the skin, which give off the perspiration. There are a great 
many of them. Where they open upon the skin there is a 
small space called 2ipore. There are thousands of these pores 
in the space of every inch of the skin. This shows the necessity 
of keeping the body clean, so that the pores remain open, for 
otherwise the perspiration cannot escape. The perspiration 
tubes open upon the surface of the skin ; below, they com- 
mence by a series of windings in the deeper parts of the skin, 
as is shown in Fig. 87. 

The Perspiration- — Perspiration is constantly being 
given off from the body, day and night. Most of the time, 
especially when the weather is cool, it is invisible, and hence is 
called insensible perspiration. But if more than the usual 
amount is given off from the skin, the perspiration collects in 
drops and is called sensible perspiration. This occurs in sum- 
mer and at other seasons of the year when we become over- 
heated or work hard. Perspiration consists largely of water ; 
and in the water certain mineral salts and certain poisonous 
matters which it is necessary for the body to cast off are dis- 
solved. 



242 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



Uses of the Perspiration. — It has just been stated 
that the perspiration takes from the body loater, salts, and poison- 
ous matters. Even when the weather is cold and perspiration 
is insensible, about a pint of water leaves the 
body daily by the skin ; and in summer much 
more than this escapes. This will give an 
idea how many of these perspiration tubes 
there must be and how active they must be. 
Perspiration is also very important because 
it cools off the body, as has already been de- 
scribed in the chapter on The Heat of the 
Body. 

The Oil Tubes-— Besides the per- 
spiration tubes, there are others which run 
through the skin and open on or near its sur- 
face, usually where there is hair (Fig. 88). 
These tubes give off a certain oily substance 
which keeps the skin soft and movable, with- 
out which the skin would get dry and cracked. 
This oily matter also serves to keep the hair 
glossy and soft ; and we find the greatest num- 
ber of oil tubes where there is hair. It is* to 
remove the oily matter which has become stale 
that we need soap in washing. Sometimes there is too much 
of this oily matter and then the skin has a greasy look, such as 
we often see on the forehead and nose. Sometimes these oil 
tubes become stopped up by a little dirt ; and as a result the 
oily matter is kept in and we see a black spot on the nose or 
forehead. This is often called a worm, but it is no worm, but 
simply the oily matter which cannot escape because the open- 
ing of its tube has become clogged up. 

The Hair. — If a hair be examined it will be found 
that one end is pointed, while the other, which was attached 
to the skin, has a white knob, called its root, and it is through 
this that it is fastened to the skin (Fig. 88). The hair is not 




Fig. ST.— One of the 
Perspiratory Tubes. 
(Greatly magnified.) 
The tube is seen to 
pass through the en- 
tire thickness of the 
skin, through its dif- 
ferent layers. 



THE SENSES. 243 

solid but is a tube, and has a canal in its centre filled with a 
soft material. Deep in the skin there are small cup-like spaces 
into which the root of the hair fits and is attached. Hair 
differs very much in color, and this is because there is a differ- 
ence in the amount of the coloring substance present in differ- 
ent cases. 

The Nails. — At the end of the fingers and toes are 
the nails. They are hard and horny and serve to protect the 
finger tips and give them firmness. In front they have no feel- 
ing and we may cut them without paining us. But further 




flG. 88. — A Piece of Skin Cut Across to Show the Way in which Hair is Attached to the 
Skin. (Highly magnified.) There is seen to be a depression in the skin into which the 
hair dips. Below, the round, expanded extremity or root of the hair is seen. Two oil tubes 
are seen opening along the side of the hair near the surface of the skin. 

back they are very firmly attached to the back of the finger 
and here they are very sensitive. 

Care of the Skin. — You will now appreciate how im- 
portant the skin is, and w^hy it is necessary to keep it in good 
condition. Cleanliness is next to Godliness is an old saying ; 
if you wish to be healthy you must be clean. Dirt is, as a 
rule, a sign of ignorance ; and those nations are usually the 
dirtiest which are the most backward in civilization. On the 
other hand, the more civilized people are the cleaner do they 
keep themselves. There are few things that cause so much 
disease as imcleanliness and filth. 

The Results of Uncleanliness and Filth. — When- 
ever you read of outbreaks of cholera and such diseases you 



244 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

will always find that they occur in parts of cities which are 
overcrowded and filthy. This was shown in the last outbreak 
of cholera many years ago in New York. It is easy to un- 
derstand why this should be so. The pores of the skin are 
the openings by which the body gets rid of waste materials, 
just as the sewer pipes of a city carry off the refuse. Suppose 
the sewer becomes stopped up in a large city, what trouble it 
causes ! What dirt ! What a stench ! In the same w^ay, 
when we allow the dirt to cover the pores of our skin, the 
poisonous materials cannot escape, and the body suffers. In 
taking proper care of the skin it is necessary to pay attention 
to bathing, to our clothing, to exercise, and to avoid using pow- 
der or any like substance upon the skin. 

Bathing. — It is not sufficient to wash the hands and 
face daily ; we should wash off the entire body at least once a 
week. If you shake out some of your underclothing at night, 
you will find a great many small white flakes fall to the ground. 
They represent the uppermost layer of the skin which is con- 
stantly being cast off in these small particles and replaced 
by the deeper layers. The entire body is covered with these 
scales, and it is necessary to remove them often. Some fall off 
by themselves, but others must be removed by soap and water. 
Consequently, at least once a week we should take a warm 
bath, and use soap in it, for this removes the stale, oily matter 



Cold Baths. — Besides the warm bath for the sake of 
cleanliness, w^e should take cold baths, especially in summer, 
because they are refreshing and strengthening. After taking a 
cold bath it is well to rub the body with a coarse towel so as to 
make the skin glow and tingle. This causes the blood to cir- 
culate faster, and increases our strength and appetite. It is 
injurious to remain in a cold bath until you begin to shiver. 
As soon as you begin to feel chilly you should go out. Many 
persons are harmed by cold bathing because they remain in 
the water for too long a time. Some persons are naturally 



THE SEI^SES. 245 

weak, and when they take a cold bath they are not able to 
withstand its effects, so that even though they rub the body 
afterward they still feel cold and chilly ; which is a sign that 
they are unable to endure cold bathing. Such people should 
be content to simply sponge off the body with cold water, be- 
sides taking a warm bath about once a week for the purpose 
of* cleansing the body. Never bathe directly after a meal ; wait 
two or three hours. If you are overheated and perspire freely, 
it is better to wait until you are somewhat cooled off before you 
go into cold water. Always ivet the entire head as well as the 
rest of the body when bathing. 

The Turkish and the Russian Bath.— Probably 
all of you have heard of the Turkish bath and the Kussian bath. 
In the Turkish hath, the person is kept in a room with very hot 
air until he perspires freely; he is then scrubbed with soap 
and water ; then he plunges into a cold water bath ; next his 
skin is rubbed and his muscles kneaded by men who are em- 
ployed for this purpose. This causes the blood to flow 
faster ; then the person rests himself thoroughly before going 
out into the air. The Russian hath is similar, the only differ- 
ence being that the room is filled with steam instead of hot 
air, to make the person perspire freely. These baths are good 
for grown people, but are not suitable for children. 

Clothing. — In the chapter on The Heat of the Body 
something has already been said about proper clothing, so 
that little need be added here. We should change under- 
clothing frequently. It is a healthy practice to take off all our 
underclothing at night and allow it to hang up and be thor- 
oughly aired before putting on again the next morning. 

Exercise helps to keep the skin in good condition by 
making us perspire more freely, and in this way keeping the 
pores open. It also causes the blood to circulate through the 
skin more rapidly, which gives us the delightful feeling of 
warmth after exercising. 

Cosmetics. — The use of powders and like substances 



246 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

upon the skin is very injurious. These substances, which are 
called cosmetics, stop up the pores and make the skin rough 
and ugly. Besides, many of them are poisonous, and this 
poison may get into the blood through the skin and poison 
the body. Powdering the face is not done by the better class 
of people. 

Care of the Hair. — The hair should be combed and 
brushed every morning. Every few weeks it will be necessary 
to wash it with soap and water. The oil tubes of the scalp 
usually supply enough oily matter to keep the hair glossy ; 
hence the practice of putting oil or grease on the hair is not 
only very vulgar and nasty but it is unnecessary. Crimping the 
hair by hot irons destroys the hair and makes it fall out. Hair 
dyes are injurious ; nearly all are made of deadly poisons, which 
may get into the blood and poison the entire body. 

Care of the Nails. — The nails should be cut with 
scissors at regular intervals. The 
finger nails should not be bitten 
off. The nails should not be cut 
too close or else the finger tips 
and the ends of the toes will be- 
come sore. Many persons have Fig. 89.-Proper and improper Method 

^nvf^ \n(^Q. PQriPr^iflllv fhp hiV top ?^ ™niming the Toe nails. The figure 
SOie toes, especially tne Ulg loe, to the left exhibits che proper method— 

hppnnciP fhpv do not mt fhp nail ^^^ ^^ squarely: that to the right the 
OecaUSe iney ao not CUL ine nan improper method — cut off round and 

properly. It should be cut ^^^^®* 

straight across and not rounded and short (Fig. 89). Hangnails 

often result from biting the nails or keeping the fingers in the 

mouth. 

Effect of Alcohol on the Skin. — An experienced 
physician can tell by a glance at a patient's skin whether he 
is in the habit of taking alcoholic drinks. At first the skin 
has a soft feeling and perspires easily; then it begins to get 
coarse and thick, eruptions may break out on it, and finally 
the nose and cheeks become swollen and covered with a net- 
work of fine red or purple veins, which tell the tale of the 
drinking habit as plainly as words. The alcohol in the blood 




THE SENSES. 247 

excites the skin to greater activity to get rid of it, and in 
course of time the overworked blood-vessels are enfeebled, 
the veins become permanently engorged, the tissues are con- 
gested, and the skin cannot perform its natural functions in 
the proper way. The skin and the kidneys are the main or- 
gans for the excretion of waste products of the body and act 
in harmony, each one sharing a portion of the work. The 
kidneys are very susceptible to the influence of alcohol, and 
are among the first organs to become diseased by its excessive 
use. As soon as their functions are enfeebled more work is 
required of the skin, but owing to the deleterious effects upon 
it, it is not so able to carry on the extra work ; therefore it 
reacts again on the kidneys, with the result that the habitue 
of the saloon, sooner or later, is liable to become the victim 
of an incurable disease'. 



248 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

SYNOPSIS. 
The Skin: 

1. Thickness — Varies in different parts of body. 
% Uses: 

a. Protection. 

b. Organ of sensation or feeling : 

1. Acuteness varies in different parts of body. 

2. Greatest at finger-tips. 

3. May be developed, as in the blind. 

4. Depends on the nerves of sensation, ending in the 
skin by small knobs. 

c. To throw off water, salts, and poisonous matters from 
the body. 

d. To regulate the bodily warmth. 

3. Structure : 

a. Scarf-skin on the outside. 
h. True skin beneath. 

4. Color: 

a. Varies in different parts of body. 
h. Varies in different races. 

c. Depends on the amount of brown coloring matter ex- 
isting in the true skin. 

5. Attachments : 

a. Perspiration-tubes — Openings called pores ; necessity 
for keeping open ; perspiration, sensible and insensible ; 
removes matters from body and cools body. 

h. Oil-tubes — Keep skin soft and hair glossy and soft ; 
necessity for using soap to remove stale oily matter. 

c. Hair — Eoot and point ; hollow ; color varies ; should 
be combed and brushed daily ; should be washed every few 
weeks ; no oil or dyes. 

d. Nails — Should be cut regularly, not bitten off; cut 
across square. 

6. Care of Skin : 

a. Cleanliness. 

b. Bathing : 

1. Warm bath and soap for cleanliness. 

2. Cold bath, refreshing. 



THE SENSES. 249 

3. Turkish bath. 4. Eussian bath. 

5. No cold baths for those too weak to stand them. 

6. No bathing directlj after meals. 

7. No bathing when overheated. 

8. Wet head as well as rest of body. 

9. Eub body well with coarse towel after bath. 

0. Clothing — Necessity for changing underclothes fre- 
quently. 

d. Exercise. 

e. Cosmetics — To be avoided. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the special senses. 2. Is the skin of the same thickness 
throughout the body ? 3. At w^hat points is it the thickest ? 4. What 
are the uses of the skin? 5. Is it necessary to life? 6. How is 
this proven ? 7. Of what service is pain ? 8. Of what use are the 
nerves of feeling? 9. What parts of the body are intended esi3e- 
cially for feeling ? 10. What is peculiar of the touch of the blind ? 
11. What is discharged from the body by means of the skin? 12. 
What effect has the skin upon the bodily warmth ? 13. Is the color 
of the skin always the same ? 14. Upon what does the color of the 
skin in the negro depend ? 15. Of how many layers is the skin 
formed? 16. What are these layers called? 17. Of what is the 
scarf-skin formed? 18. What becomes of the scales which form 
the scarf-skin? 19. What is dandruff? 20. Describe the true 
skin. 21. How do the two layers of the skin become separated in 
slight burns ? 22. Describe the perspiration tubes. 23. What are 
the pores ? 24. What is insensible perspiration? 25. What is sensi- 
ble perspiration ? 26. What are the uses of perspiration ? 27. What 
does the perspiration remove from the body? 28. About how much 
perspiration leaves the body every day ? 29. How does perspiration 
'cool off the body ? 30. What appearance does the skin of the finger- 
tips present ? 81. What other tubes are there besides the perspira- 
tion-tubes? 32. Of what use is the material which the oil- tubes pro- 
duce ? 33. What happens when the oil-tubes get stopped up? 34. 
Why does the skin of the nose and forehead sometimes have a 
greasy look ? 35. Describe a hair. 36. How is hair attached to the 
skin? 37. Of what use are the nails? 38. Why is cleanliness so 
very important ? 39. Of what is dirt a sign in regard to civilization ? 



250 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 

40. What effect upon the health has filth? 41. Why is filth so bad 
for the health? 42. How often should the entire body be washed? 
43. Why should the entire body be washed frequently with soap and 
warm water? 44. What are the effects of a cold bath? 45. What 
should we do to make the circulation more brisk after a cold bath ? 

46. What is the sign that you have been in a cold bath long enough ? 

47. Is it well to bathe directly after a meal ? 48. What other pre- 
cautions should you take when bathing ? 49. Explain the Turkish 
and the Kussian bath. 50. Should we wear the same underclothing at 
night that we have worn during the day ? 51. How does exercise 
affect the skin? 52. What are cosmetics? 53. What effect have 
they upon the skin? 54. What should be done to the hair? 55. 
What can you say about the practice of putting oil or grease upon 
the hair ? 56. W^hat are most hair dyes made of ? 57. How should 
the nails be cut ? 



THE NOSE— THE SENSE OF SMELL. 

Functions. — The nose is the organ with which we 
smell It is also the part through which the air is di^awn. The 




Smell 

Mr 



Ibod^. 



Fig. 90. — Diagram Exhibiting the Channels by which Smell, Air and Food Reach the In. 

terior of the Body. 



hvoer part of the nose represents a passage for breathing, th« 
upper portion is the part devoted to the sense of smell (Fig. 90) 



THE SENSES. 251 

The Breathing Channel and the Smelling Chan- 
nel. — When we breathe we draw the air backivard through the 
lower part of the nose. This part of the nose runs horizontally 
backward, and behind joins the throat ; so that if a fluid is 
poured into the nose it will run into the throat. When we 
smell, we draw the air upivard, because we want the odor to 
ascend to where the nerves of smell are. 

Parts of the Nose- — The nose is formed of bones 
and gristle. The hard part on the outside, where usually peo- 
ple wear their eyeglasses, is formed of two small bones and is 
called the bridge of the nose. In looking into the nose we find 
that it is divided into two halves. The openings in front are 
called the nostrils. In the interior of the nose on each side are 
found three shelves of bone covered by a soft membrane ; and 
beneath each shelf is a passage-way which runs from the front 
to the back of the nose. 

The Nerves of Smell. — In the membrane which 
covers the two upper shelves just described, are found numer- 
ous nerves, the nerves of smell. By consulting Fig. 91, it will 
be seen that the brain lies immediately above the nose. These 
nerves of smell come in bunches from the brain, and descend 
into the nose. Although we are in the habit of saying that we 
smell with the nose, it would be more correct, strictly speaking, 
to say that we smell with the front part of the brain. The 
nerves of smell merely serve to carry the odors to the brain. 
This is proved by the fact that there is a loss of the sense of 
smell if the front part of the brain be injured or diseased, even 
though the nerves of smell still be present. 

The Sense of Smell in the Lower Animals. — 
Many of the lower animals have a much more acute sense of 
smell than man. Dogs and cats, for instance, can smell the 
faintest odors at great distances. In hunting dogs the sense 
of smell is extraordinarily acute ; they can smell game miles 
away and for this reason are valuable in hunting. This is 
spoken of as scenting the game. Before the civil war, blood- 



252 AlS^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND IIYOIEIS^E. 



hounds were employed to track runaway slaves, and they were 
able to do this owing to the acuteness of their sense of smelh 

Cold in the Head. — Almost everyone has caught cold 
at some time. When we catch cold it may settle in any part of 
the body ; it may attack the lungs, or the stomach, or some 
other organ. When the cold settles in our head we usually 




FiQ. 91.— View of the Interior of the Nose, showing the Nerves of Smell Descending into 
the Nose from the Brain, in the Form of a Bunch. 

feel it principally in the nose and throat. We often get a sore 
throat and our nose feels stopped up so that we cannot smell, 
and we cannot breathe through it, because there is too much 
blood in it. 

Cold in the head is oftenest due to sitting or standing in 
a draught, or to going suddenly into the cool air when we are 
overheated, without putting on some additional clothing. Very 
often we know that we have been imprudent in this way and 
can feel the cold coming on, and then a mustard foot-bath may 
prevent it. 

Use of the Sense of Smell. — With the sense of 
smell we are able to enjoy agreeable odors. But what is im- 



THE SENSES. 253 

portant is, that we are also able to smell had odors, thus pro* 
tecting the body by informing us of the whereabouts of obnox- 
ious things which should be avoided, especially of impure air. 
It enables us to select the proper /ooc?, and to refuse that which 
is unfit to eat. It often protects our bodies and homes by 
enabling us to smell smoke and in this way to discover the 
Existence of a fire. 

Sweet Scents. — To smell the sweet odors which 
flowers give oflf, is very agreeable. Odors are given off by the 
oils existing in the flowers of plants. These oils are extracted 
from the flowers, and this is then called perfume. Many per- 
sons use this perfume 'to put upon their handkerchiefs and 
clothes so that they may smell sweet ; but, as a rule, the most 
refined people do not use perfumes. If you always keep the 
body clean and brush your teeth often you will not need any 
perfume ; for if the body is clean, it always smells sweet. 
Soap and water are better than perfume to tidy people. 

Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Sense of 
Smell, — The sharp, biting effect of tobacco upon mucus 
membranes, as well as the irritating effect of alcohol, causing 
a redness and an inflammation of the linings of the throat which 
extends up the pharynx and the sensitive linings of the nose. 
The smokers habit of exhaling smoke through the nostrils 
adds to the smarting sensation. The tears which are started 
to wash away any foreign source of irritation do not relieve it, 
but as the smoking continues the membranes become thick- 
ened. If the person is subject to catarrh, the irritation aggra- 
vates it. Gradually the delicate olfactory nerves that have 
their endings in the mucous membrane become hypertrophied 
or deadened, and the sense of smell is dulled. Cases have been 
known where cancer of the nose is said to have been caused 
by the excessive use of tobacco. In hard drinkers the sense 
of smell is notoriously deficient, and in certain occupations 
where this sense is of importance, those employed cannot 
drink and work at the same time. 



254 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIN^D HYGIEjSTE. 



SYNOPSIS. 

The Nose : 

1. Parts : 

(1.) Two bones forming bridge. 

(2.) Gristle. 

(3.) Two nostrils. 

(4.) Three shelves running from front to rear. 

(5.) Shelves covered by soft membrane. 

(6.) Membrane of upper two shelves supplied with 

(7.) Nerves of smell which descend in a bunch from brain. 

2. Functions : 

(1.) Lower passage for air. 

(2.) Upper r)art for sense of smell. 

a. Great acuteness in some of lower animals. 

h. Blunted in cold in head. 

c. Use — To protect us from impure air and im- 
proper food. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What are the uses of the nose? 2. Which part of the nose 
serves for breathing ? 3. Which part is used for smelling ? 4. Of 
what is the nose formed? 5. Where is the bridge of the nose ? 6. 
What are the nostrils ? 7. What do we find in the inside of the 
nose ? 8. Where are the nerves of smell ? 9. Where do they come 
from? 10. How is the nose connected with the throat? 11. Where 
do we find the more acute sense of smell, in man or in the lower 
animals? 12. Give an example. 13. What is meant by a cold in 
the head? 14. What is this often caused by? 15. What are the 
uses of the sense of smell ? 16. What parts of j^lants usually give 
off the sweet scents ? 17. What can you say about the habit of 
using perfume upon the handkerchief or clothing? 



THE TONGUE AND THE SENSE OF TASTE. 

The tongue is the organ with which we taste our food. 
Structure of the Tongue. — This organ consists 



THE SENSES. 255 

almost entirely of muscle tissue. Its under surface is smooth, 
and its upper surface very rough. This roughness is due to a 
large number of ^m^iW projections. These can be seen better 
in the lower animals than in man, and serve two purposes : 




Fig. 92.— The Human Tongue ; above, the Epiglottis is also seen. 

First, they are the parts which give us taste ; the nerves of 
taste ending in rounded extremities in these elevations. The 
other use is to feel the food in our mouth and to discover 
whether it is chewed sufficiently fine, and mixed enough with 
the saliva, before it is swallowed. The lower animals, as dogs 



256 AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

and cats, are enabled to scrape off bones by means of these 
projections. 

Uses of the Tongue. --The uses of the tongue are: 
(1) as the organ of taste ; (2) to revolve the food in the mouth, 
to mix it tvith the saliva, to separate hard portions of food, as 
seed and shells, and to assist in swalloioing ; and (3) as the 
principal organ in speaking. The importance of the sense of 
taste need not be pointed out especially. It enables us to 
choose our food and to avoid what is unfit to eat ; it prevents 
us from eating improper food ; it increases the appetite and 
makes us enjoy our meals when the food is to our liking. 

Abuse of the Sense of Taste.— The sense of taste 
adds much to our enjoyment. It is necessary, however, to 
prevent it from enjoying too many liberties, otherwise we shall 
be eating too much, become gluttons, and suffer in health. In 
selecting our meals, we should be guided by what is whole- 
some, nourishing, and digestible, as well as agreeable. 

Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Taste. — 
The sense of taste is blunted by the continual use of alcoholic 
drinks and by tobacco. All delicate flavors are lost to the 
man who indulges in them continuously, and unless his food 
is very highly seasoned with pepper or curry or other irritant 
condiment it tastes flat and insipid to him. In this way he 
loses his appetite, and is apt to have indigestion from the im- 
moderate use of highl}^ seasoned foods. The tongue is often 
parched and coated and barked, and the breath offensive and 
foul ; frequently there is intense thirst and a loathing for all 
food. The cook often comes in for a reprimand for a poor 
dinner, when in reality it is the alcoholic taste of the diner 
that is at fault. 

The taste of tobacco, especially when chewed, is sharp 
and biting to the tongue, and causes the saliva to flow freely. 
This is nauseating and j)oisonous to swallow, so it leads to 
the disgusting habit of expectoration. In the meantime the 
natural supply of saliva is diminished, and there is not enough 
to aid in the digestion of food. 



THE SENSES. 257 

Cigarettes are particularly harmful to the throat, as is all 
tobacco smoking. It causes a roughness and chronic inflamma- 
tion that interferes with public speaking and singing, and if 
there is any disease of the throat, it aggravates it. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The Tongue. 
Structure — • 
' 1. Formed of muscle-tissue. 

2. Smooth on under surface. 

3. Eough on upper surface, due to 

4. Small projections which serve to 

a. Feel food to see if properly chewed. 
h. Taste with, since nerves of taste end here. 
Uses — 

1. Organ of taste. 

2. To revolve food in mouth, mix it with saliva, remove hard 

portions, and assist in swallowing. 

3. To assist in speaking. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Describe the tongue. 2. Of what kind of tissue is it made 
up ? 3. Which surface is rough ? 4. What is this roughness due 
to? 5. Of what use are these small elevations? 6. What are the 
uses of the tongue ? 7. What are the uses of the sense of taste ? 
8. How might we abuse the sense of taste ? 



THE EYE AND THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 

Protections to the Eye. — The eje is one of the 

most delicate organs in the body. It is placed in the large 
opening in the skull found just below the forehead, on each 
side of the nose, called the orbit. This affords it considera- 
ble protection. Besides this, it is also protected by the eije- 
brows, eyelids, and eyelashes. In the orbit the eye rests upon 
a soft cushion of fat. 



258 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIS^D HYGIENE. 

The Eyelids. — These serve to protect the eyes by 
their quick movement in closing, thus keeping out dust. They 
keep out the light when too strong, or during sleep. 

The Eyebrows and Eyelashes.— These keep the 
perspiration from rolling into the eyes, and keep out dust. 
They should never be cut, for this will not cause them to grow 
any longer and injures them by making them thick and stiff. 



End of choroid coat in front. . , 

Space behind iris 

Membrane supporting the lens 

Cornea ^HBS 

Aqueous humor 

Lens 

Iris 

Space behind iris 

End of choroid coat in front . . 




Fig. 93.— The Human Eye (Cut Across and Enlarged), Showing Its Different Parts and 

the Interior. 

Parts of the Eye. — The eye is spherical in shape, and 
measures about an inch in diameter. Its front portion is per- 
fectly transparent, and is called the cornea. But behind the 
cornea, which forms about one-fifth of the circumference of the 
eyeball, it is opaque and white, and can be separated into three 
layers, or coats. The outermost layer is hard and strong, and 
it preserves the form of the eyeball ; it is called the white of 
the eye, or the sclerotic coat. The middle layer is dark-colored, 
and is called the choroid coat. The inner layer is called the 



THE SENSES. 259 

retina^ and is of great importance, because the nerve of the eye 
sends its branches to it, and it is the portion of the eye with 
which we see (Fig. 93). 

Looking into the eye, we see in the centre a black spot 
which is called the pupil. It is a round opening in a mem- 
brane which acts as a partition to this part of the eye. This 
membrane is a colored ring which surrounds the pupil and is 
really a curtain hanging behind the clear part of the eye. It is 
called the iris. 

Behind this curtain, the iris, is a round transparent 
body, about the size of a cherry-pit, which is called the lens. 
It is perfectly clear and its shape is like that of a small magni- 
fying glass ; but it is softer, like a hard jelly. It is supported 
behind the iris, just where the transparent part of the eye joins 
the opaque portion, by a delicate membrane, and is round, but 
flattened somewhat in front and behind. 

The interior of the eye is filled with jiuid. Just be- 
hind the cornea, extending to the lens, is a space which is 
filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humor. The 
rest of the eyeball (behind the lens) is filled with a clear 
substance like white jelly, called the glassy body or vitreous 
humor. 

The Iris. — It has just been explained that this is a 
curtain placed in front of the lens of the eye. There is a round 
opening in the centre, by which light is admitted to the eye ; 
this is the pupil. The pupil changes its size very often. When 
we look at anything in the distance the pupil becomes large ; 
when we look at objects close by it becomes very small. The 
pupil also regulates the amount of light which should enter the 
eye. In going into a bright light, as for instance into the sun, 
the pupil becomes very small ; if it did not do so the light 
would be too bright and would injure the eye. It is very 
dangerous to the eye to try to look at the sun. In the twilight, 
when the light is dim, you will notice that the pupil becomes 
yery large. 



260 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

The Muscles of the Eye. — It is wonderful how 
rapidly the eyes move ; but this is necessary to protect the 
body. The rapid motion of the eyes is also necessary so that 
the}^ can act together. If you were to press upon one eye so 
that it could not move, and then were to move the other, every- 
thing would look double ; so that the two eyes must move to- 
gether if we want to see singly and plainly. There are six 
small muscles (Fig. 94) attached to each eye, which make its 
movements so rapid. Sometimes one of these muscles does 
not act so well as it should ; then the eye turns in all the time 




FlO. 94.— The Muscles Attached to the Eyeball and to the Upper Lid. 

or constantly looks outward ; the person is then cross-eyed, or 
squints. Some children are born this way and it is not right to 
make fun of them. Sometimes children turn their eyes so as 
to imitate cross-eyed persons — a very injurious habit. 

How We See- — It may seem strange to say that we 
really see with the hrain, but such is the case. Of course the 
eyes are necessary, and without them we should be blind ; but 
the brain is also necessary for sight. If a certain part of the 
brain be injured we cannot see, even though our eyes remain 
as clear and bright as they were before. 

Resemblance of the Eye to a Photographer's 
Camera. — The eye resembles the box which the photographer 
uses to take pictures, and which is called a camera. Let us see 
how it resembles the photographer's camera. In the first place 



THE SENSES. 261 

the photographer cannot tal^e a picture in the dark, nor can we 
see in the dark. Secondly, in the front of the camera there is 
a lens of glass ; we also have a lens, though it is of course not 
of glass, but of a better and softer material. Again, in the 
back of the photographer's camera is a glass plate, upon which 
the picture falls and is taken ; in the same way in our eyes the 
retiua serves as a plate upon which to take the picture. Anything 

, which we see forms an image upon the retina. This image 
lasts only a short time, but long enough for us to see it. Fi- 
nally, you have probably noticed how the photographer puts a 
black cloth over his head and the back of the camera so as to 
keep it dark ; the middle, colored coat of the eye — the choroid 
— serves to darken the inside of the eye. 

The Nerve of the Eye. — Connected with the back 
of the eye is a portion resembling a cord, which passes to the 
brain. This is the optic nerve, or nerve of the eye. It is the 
nerve which connects the eye with the portion of the brain 
used in seeing. On arriving at the eye the nerve spreads out 
in the interior of this organ and forms the innermost layer, 
which is called the retina. By looking into the interior of the 
eye with an instrument, the oculist can see this layer. It is 
shown in Fig. 95, the central spot being where the nerve enters 
the eye ; at this point blood-vessels also enter the eye and ther 
divide and spread out in a very pretty manner. 

Blindness. — If the optic nerves of both sides become 
diseased, or both retinae become changed, the person may be- 
come totally blind, even though the eye appears perfectly 

^healthy on the outside. These nerves carry the sight from the 
eye to the brain, with which seeing is really done. 

Images- — The word image has been used and will re- 
quire some explanation. If you look into a mirror you will see 
your face — this is an image of your face. The light strikes 
your face and from it passes to the mirror ; there it forms an 
image ; from this image the light passes into the eye and forma 
another image upon the retina, which we see. 



262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

The Tears. — The eye is constantly kept moist by 
being bathed with tears. At the outer part of each eye be- 




FlO. 95. — A View of the Interior of the Eye, as Seen with the Oculist's Instrument 




Fig. 96 The Lachrymal Gland, Sac, and Duct. 

tween it and the bone forming* the roof of the orbit, is a small 
body called the lachrymal gland (Fig. 96), meaning tear-gland. 
This body is constantly pouring the tears over the eye so as tc 



THE SENSES. 263 

keep it moist. Even during sleep this takes place, though 
there is then much less produced. When we are awake the eye 
is moving constantly and this movement spreads the tears over 
the eyeballs. After the tears have moistened the eye, they are 
collected again and escape into the nose. If you look at your 
lids you will notice near the inner corner of the eye, a small 
*spot about the size of a pin's point. There is one of these on 
the lower lid and one on the upper. The tears pass into these 
openings and then into a small bag near the nose, called the 
tear-sac ; then they are carried down into the nose by a tube 
called the tear-duct, or nasal duct (Fig. 96). You have noticed 
how the nose runs after crying. This is because there is so 
much more of this fluid discharged into the tear-duct. If any- 
thing gets into the eye, the lachrymal gland produces more of 
the tears and they flood this organ until the intruding body is 
swept away. If we become very sad or very angry, tears be- 
come very abundant. 

Care of the Eyes. — There is no organ in the body 
which contributes so much to our comfort, our enjoyment, and 
our knowledge, as does the eye. And yet the eye is constantly 
being misused. If you have good eyesight you should take 
care of your eyes so that it does not get bad, and if your eye- 
sight has already become bad you should see that it does not 
get worse. Some of the most common rules for the care of the 
eyesight are the following : 

After having read a long time, it is well to stop and rest 
the eyes ; for the eyes, like any other part of the body, cannot 
be used continuously. It is quite natural that the eyes should 
feel tired and begin to pain after we have used them a long 
time ; this is nature's sign that they need rest. 

Never read in a poor light. You may be finishing a 
chapter in your book and you notice that it is beginning to get 
dark, yet you do not stop until you get to the end of the chap- 
ter even though you strain your eyes. This is wrong and the 
eyes suffer for it. 



264 AKATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Never read very fine print if you can Lelp it. 

In reading, have the UgJd come over your shoulder and 
thus fall upon the book or paper without going directly into 
your eyes. It is better to sit with your back to the window 
and thus have the ligLt come over your shoulder, and preferably 
over the left shoulder. This precaution is especially useful at 
night, for the glare of the gaslight or lamp is very tiring to the 
eyes ; while if the light is bebind you and falls over your shoul- 
der there is just as much Hght upon your book or paper and yet 
the eyes are spared the brightness. 

Never read while lying upon the hack. You cannot read 
comfortably in this position and you have to strain the eyes 
so that it is very tiring. If for any reason you must read lying- 
down, do so with the shoulders and head raised into a half- 
sitting position. 

There may be some excuse for business men's reading in 
the cars, for often this may be the only time they have to read 
the daily papers. But there is no reason why children should 
do this. It is injurious, in the first place, because the light is 
usually poor, but chiefly, because the constant jolting of the 
car makes the page unsteady and requires a constant strain 
upon the eyes to keep the place. 

Never wash your eyes with water lohich another person has 
used on his face. Never use a lowel for wiping your face, which 
another person has had to his face, unless this person is one of 
your family and you know he has no eye disease. There is a 
disease of the eyelids, called granular lids, which is very con- 
tagious ; many children contract it in school by using the 
towel which another child who had the disease has used. 

Do not stoop when you read, hut raise the hook so that you 
can hold the head erect. 

Weak Sight.— Some persons are born with weak eyes 
— that is, they do not see so well as other people and have to 
wear glasses. Some of these people are called near-sighted, 
others are c^WeA far-sighted. If the doctor advises you to wear 



THE SETTSES. 265 

glasses you should not be ashamed to do so. Only vain per- 
sons object to wearing glasses when they are necessary. 

Old Sight- — After persons are about forty years old 
they can still see distant objects well ; but they need glasses 
in looking at near objects. 

Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Sight. — 
Both alcohol and tobacco have a bad effect upon the eyesight. 
Just how much harm is done by each in any individual case is 
difficult to determine since most men who drink also use 
tobacco. The smoke of tobacco has an irritating effect on the 
lining membranes of the eye, and produces inflammation. Al- 
cohol has the power to congest the blood-vessels ; at the same 
time it makes the eyes water and renders them blood-shot. 
A man who drinks and smokes much has unsteady vision, just 
as he has an unsteady hand. He cannot aim straight in shoot- 
ing, cannot measure distances accurately with his eyes, and 
often makes missteps in consequence. His vision is less ac- 
curate and acute, and a drinking man is rarely employed in 
any jDOsition where quickness and accuracy of vision is needed, 
as in train service where signals are to be read. A peculiar 
effect of alcohol and tobacco upon the eyes is that floating 
things, flying objects, lines and figures appear before the 
eyes, recurring with persistency, or the image of an object 
will remain on the retina for a long time after one has stopped 
looking at it, even after the eyes have been closed. 

The peculiar delusions of sight in delirium tremens, when 
a man sees reptiles and vermin and all sorts of weird and 
horrible sights, are due to the action of the alcohol on the 
centres of sight in the brain. 

Cases of acute alcoholism and chronic alcoholism as well 
as excessive smoking are often accompanied by periodic at- 
tacks of blindness. This is due to the effect that alcohol has 
on the optic nerve, causing it to degenerate so that no image 
can be carried from the retina to the brain. Whether this 
severe disease of the optic nerve takes place or not, the fact is 



266 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

true that a man who smokes and drinks much usually has 
poor eyesight and suffers from trouble with his eyes. 



SYNOPSIS. 
The Eye : 

X. Protections . 

a. Surrounded by bony orbit. 

h. Rests on cushion of fat. 

c. Eyebrows — Keep off perspiration. 

^ ' [ Keep out dirt, light, and perspiration. 
e. Eyelashes. ) ^ > & > r i^ 

2. Parts: 

a. Coats : 

1. Opaque part behind. 

a. Sclerotic — Outer, white, dense. 

h. Choroid — Middle, colored, brown. 

c. Retina — Inner, composed of nerve-tissue. 

2. Transparent part in front — Cornea. 

b. Iris — Curtain to keep out light ; in centre is 

c. Pupil — Size changes. 

d. Lens. 

e. Fluids : 

1. Aqueous humor. 

2. Vitreous humor. 

/. Muscles — Six small ones attached to eye, to move it 
in all directions. 

g. Nerve — Attached behind and passing to brain, with 
which we really see. 

h. Lachrymal gland — Near the eye, gives off the tears, 
which keep the eyeball moist, collected by tear-sac and es- 
cape by tear-duct into nose. 
Care of the Eye : 

1. Requires rest when used for long time. 

2. Good light in reading. 

3. Injurious to read very fine print. 



THE SENSES. 267 

4. Light should come from behind — over shoulder. 

5. Not well to read while lying down. 

6. Not well to read while riding in cars. 

7. Kisk of contracting eye disease in using towels or water 
that other people have used, to eyes. 

8. In reading, sit erect. 

9. Weak sight requires glasses. 

10. Old sight (after forty) requires glasses. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. In what are the- eyes placed? 2. How are the eyes protected ? 
3. What do the eyelids do ? 4. Of what use are the eyebrows and 
eyelashes? 5. Why should we not cut the eyelashes or the eye- 
brows ? 6. What is the shape of the eye ? 7. What is the cornea ? 
8. How many layers has the back part of the eye ? 9. What is the 
back part called ? 10. Which is the most important of these three 
layers? 11. What is the pupil? 12. What is the iris? 13. What 
is the lens ? 14. With what is the interior of the eye filled ? 15. 
What two fluids do we have in the eye ? 16. Is the pupil always of 
the same size? 17. When does it become large? 18. When does 
it become small ? 19. Of what use is the pupil ? 20. How many 
muscles are there to each eye ? 21. Of what use are these muscles ? 
22. What is the cause of cross-eyes ? 23. With what part of the 
body do we really see, the eye or the brain? 24. How is this 
proven ? 25. What instrument may our eye be compared with ? 
26. Explain in what ways our eye resembles the photographer's 
box ? 27. Where is the nerve of the eye ? 28. What does it do ? 
29. What do we mean by an image ? 30. How is the eye kept 
moist ? 31. Where is the body which produces the tears ? 32. 
What is it called ? 33. How are the tears collected again ? 34. 
What becomes of them? 35. Where is the tear-sac ? 36. Where is 
the tear-duct ? 37. What causes the tears to flow more than usual ? 
38. Why should Wt? stop after we have read a long time ? 39. What 
does a tired feeling or pain in the eye after reading mean ? 40. 
What sort of light should be avoided ? 41. Where should the light 
come from when you read ? 42. Should it come from the front ? 
43. Why not? 44. Can a person read lying down, without injury 
to his eyes ? 45. Why not ? 46. Why should we not read on the 



268 



AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



cars. 47. "Why should we not use towels that other persons have 
used to their faces ? 48. What disease of the eyelids may be con- 
tracted in this way ? 49. What position should you take when you 
read? 50. W^hat is meant by weak sight? 51, After what age do 
people need glasses for reading ? 



THE EAR— THE SENSE OF HEARING. 

Like the eye, the ear is an organ which adds very much 

to our comfort, pleasure, and knowledge. 

Parts of the Ear.— The ear is divided into three parts : 

An outer, a middle, and an inner. 

The Outer Ear is the part seen at the side of the 
head. It is expanded and formed 
of gridle, covered with skin. Its 
shape is not only ornamental, but 
useful, for it serves to collect the 
sound and lead it into the deeper 
parts of the ear. As a rule, we 
cannot move the ears ; but in the 
lower animals the ear can be moved 
in all directions, and in this way 
these animals tell where the sound 
comes from. From this outer part 
of the ear there is a canal about an 
inch long which leads to the next 
part, or the middle ear. In this 
canal is usually found a little yel- 
lowish substance, which w^e call 
ear-ioax, which serves to keep the 

canal soft and moist and to keep out insects, which dislike this 

wax. 

The Middle Ear. — The middle part of the ear contains 

the drum, and is only about half an inch across. It is at the 




Fig. 97.— The Outer Ear. 



THE SEKSES. 269 

bottom of the canal which leads from the outer ear. Between 
the two a sheet of membrane is stretched which is called the 
drum-memhrane. In the middle ear itself there is nothing but 
three small hones which are joined so as to form a small chain. 
One end of this chain is fastened to the drum-membrane and 
the other to the inner ear, so that these bones connect the 
outer ear with the inner ear. 




Fig. 98.— The Different Parts of the Organ of Hearing. 1, The outer ear ; 2, the canal 
leading from the outer to the middle ear ; 3, middle ear ; 4» Eustachian tube ; 5, nerve of 
hearing ; 6, the internal ear. 



Bones of the Ear. — These bones are shown in Fig. 
99, and are very interesting. They are named, according to 
their shape, the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. 

Connection Between the Ear and the Throat. 
— ^Perhaps you may have noticed that sometimes when you 
blow your nose hard there is a stuffed feeling in the ears ; or 
that when your tliroat was sore your ears were also affected. 
Sometimes, too, when you swallow you feel something in your 



270 



AISTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



ear. This is because there is a tube which runs from the throat 
to the middle ear. It is very important that this tube remain 
open, for otherwise air cannot enter the middle ear as it should 
and we do not hear well. This tube is called the Eustachian 
tube, after the physician who first described it (Fig. 98, 4). 

The Internal Ear. — This part of the ear is placed 
very deeply in the bone. There are several circular canals and 
a winding passage like a staircase hollowed out of the bone, 
and in these the inner ear is contained (Fig. 100). In these 
circular canals we find a delicate membrane and a fluid on 




Fig. 99.— The Small Bones of the Ear. A, 
The hammer ; B, the anvil ; C, the stirrup. 




Fig. 100.— The Internal Ear. 



each side of it. The arrangements in the internal ear are very 
intricate. 

The Nerve of Hearing- — The nerve of hearing is at- 
tached to the internal ear and from this part it passes to the 
brain (Fig. 98, 5) ; it therefore conducts the sound to the brain 
just as the optic nerve conducts sight to the brain. 

Sound. — Before studying how we hear, it is necessary 
to understand how sound is produced. Sound is produced 
whenever the air is made to vibrate — that is, whenever the air 
is put into motion resembling waves. You will understand 
this better if you think for a moment of the water : Suppose 
when a pond is quiet, you throw in a stone ; this causes a mo- 



THE SENSES. 271 

tion in the water and you will then see rings start out from the 
point where the stone fell, these rings becoming larger and 
larger until they are finally lost ; but all the time these rings 
or very small waves have been going farther and farther from 
the centre. Now imagine the same thing occurring in the air. 
If you strike a bell, for instance, you know that the bell is 
vibrating, because if you put your finger on it you can feel 
this motion. This motion is given to the air, and the air 
vibrates in the same way, except that the vibrations travel 
through the air to our ear. 

Solids conduct sound even better than air does ; if you 
place your ear at one end of the table and strike the other end 
the sound which you hear will be very loud. 

How We Hear. — Now that we know what sound is, 
let us study how we hear. The waves of sound pass through 
the air and reach the outer ear, which is shaped so as to collect 
them and lead them into the canal to the drum-membrane. 
The waves of sound beat against this membrane and cause it 
to vibrate ; when this membrane vibrates, the bones of the 
middle ear must also move to and fro, because they are at- 
tached to it. The bones of the middle ear carry the vibra- 
tions to the internal ear, where the nerve of hearing ends in 
a large number of fine hairs, and these carry the sound to the 
brain. 

Deaf-Mutes. — Persons who cannot hear when they 
are children, and therefore cannot imitate sounds from other 
people, are called deaf-mutes. These unfortunate people have 
voices just like others ; but they cannot hear the sounds, and 
therefore they cannot speak in the ordinary way. But they 
can make themselves understood in two ways : One way is by 
means of signs and letters which they make with their fingers, 
and which they learn to do very rapidly. The second method, 
and the most recent, is to teach the deaf-mutes to talk by hav- 
ing them imitate the motion of our lips. It is surprising how 
well they learn to do this ; some of them being able to carry 



272 AlS'ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AIN^D HYGIENE. 

on a conversation and yet not hear what is spoken, but under- 
standing it by watching the movement of the lips. 

Care of the Ears. — We should never try to pick out 
the wax in the ears with hairpins and other sharp instruments. 
A Httle wax is quite natural, and if too much is there it is best 
to let the doctor remove it, for we may injure the delicate 
parts of the ear. 

If water gets into the ear during bathing, hold the head 
over to one side and pull the outer ear up and down gently, 
and it will flow out. 

If an insect should crawl into the ear, a little soap and 
water will kill it, and at the same time bring it out. 

A blow upon the side of the head or over the ear is 
dangerous, because it sometimes affects the brain ; it may also 
tear the delicate drum-membrane and thus interfere with good 
hearing. 

The ears do not need to be washed out when they are 
healthy ; simply wash the outer ear and do not meddle with 
any of the deeper parts. 

Effects of Alcohol on the Hearing.— The effects of 
alcohol on the ear are still very imperfectly understood. It 
is probable, however, that, like the other sensory nerves of the 
body, the acouptic nerve undergoes some modification similar 
to that seen in the optic nerve when it is poisoned by alcohol. 
In such a case deafness would be produced. While sudden 
deafness from the effects of alcoholic drinks may be consid- 
ered a rare condition, it is by no means infrequent that by 
the use of such drinks chronic congestion of the delicate 
structures of the ear is produced, which causes or aggravates 
a catarrh of the middle ear which ultimately results in im- 
paired hearing, if not in deafness. Chronic catarrhal disease 
of the middle ear is a very frequent disease in large cities 
where there is so much irritating dust, that constantly in- 
flames the nose and the pharynx. This inflammation usually 
extends up the Eustachian tubes, and produces the sensations 



THE SEKSES 273 

of buzzing and ringing in the ears. In such conditions the 
bad effects of alcohol are positive, and tend to make the dis- 
ease progress at a much quicker rate than under the usual 
circumstances. 

In delirium tremens hallucinations of hearing are very 
frequent ; the patient in the delirium not only sees things but 
may heal* a vast variety of sounds, people shouting to him or 
whistles blowing or shrieks of despair. These are produced 
by the action of the poison on the brain centres for hearing, 
just as in the case of the hallucinations of sight. The place 
in the brain that is affected is in the occipital lobes or just 
** in the back of the head." 



SYNOPSIS. 

The Ear : 
Parts : 

1. Outer ear — Collects sound, 

2. Canal leading from outer to middle ear. 

3. Middle ear : 

a. Drum-membrane. 

h. Bones : (1) Hammer, (2) anvil, y,) stirrup. 

4. Internal ear — Nerve of hearing ends heie in fine hairs, 
and conveys sound to brain. 

5. Eustachian tube — Leading from throat to middle ear. 
How we Hear. 

1. Vibration of sounding body. 

2 . Vibration of air. 

3. Collection of sound by outer ear. 

4. Conveyance of sound by canal. 

5. Strikes against drnm-membrane. 

6. Vibrations conducted by chain of bones to 

7. Internal car, where they strike the hair-like ends of 

8. The nerve of hearing, which conducts sound to 

9. Brain. 



274 AJSTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Into what three parts can the ear be divided ? 2. Why is the 
external ear shaped as it is ? 3. Can the lower animals move their 
ears? 4. Of what use is this to them? 5. What leads from the 
outer ear to the middle ear? 6. What is ear-wax ?"*"7. What 
are its uses? 8. What is another name for the middle ear? 9. 
Where is the drum -membrane? 10. What is in the middle ear? 
11. How are the bones of the middle ear arranged ? 12. What are 
the names given to the bones of the middle ear ? 13. What con- 
nects the throat with the middle ear ? 14. Where is the internal 
ear ? 15. What is its form ? 16. What is the internal ear ? 17. 
Where is the nerve of hearing ? 18. What does it do ? 19. How is 
sound produced ? 20. What conducts the sound ? 21. Can solids 
conduct sound ? 22. How can you prove this ? 23. Explain how 
we hear? 24. What is meant by a deaf-mute? 25. Has a deaf- 
mute any voice ? 26. Why cannot he talk without special teaching ? 
27. How do deaf-mutes make themselves understood ? 28. Why 
should we not try to pick out the wax in our ears ? 29. How would 
you get rid of any insect that crawled into the ear ? 30. Why is a 
blow upon the side of the head or over the ear dangerous? 31. 
What is the effect of alcohol on the hearing ? 



INDEX. 



Absinthe, 205 
Absorption, 157 
Acbilles tendon, 60 
Air changes of breathing, 174 
impure, 175 
passage and food passage, 169, 

170 
purification of, 175 
vesicles, 172 
Alcohol, 96 
and bodily heat, 191 
and expectancy of life, 106 
cost of, 107 
diseases of, 105 
general effects of, 104 
hereditary effects of, 229 
effect of, on bones, 29 
on blood, 127 
on brain, 226 
on circulation, 127 
on food, 104 
on hearing, 272 
on the heart, 129 
on the liver, 156 
on the lungs, 178 
on muscles, 60 
on sight, 265 
on skin, 246 
on spinal cord, 228 
on stomach, 148 
on the nervous system, 226 
effects of, on athletes, 74 
moral effects of, 107 
Alcoholic appetite, 96 
drinks, 92, 95 
drinks and crime, 107 
Ale, 100 
Anatomy, 15 

Appetite, effects of exercise on, 71 
Arm bones, 38 



Arteries, 123 
Auricle, 120 

Barley, 100 
Bathing, 245 
Baths, cold, 245 
Beer, 100 
Beverages, 89 
Bile, 155 

action of, 155 
Bitters, 104 
Bleeding, 126 
Blindness, 261 
Blood and circulation, 111 
appearance of, 111 
clotting, 115 
composition of, 111 
course of, 119 
effect of alcohol on, 127 
globules, 111 
red, 102 
white, 102 
use of, 113 
plasma. 111 

of arteries and veins, 114 
of other animals, 113 
use of, 113 
vessels, 110, 123 
frog's foot, 116 
Bodily heat and refuse, 185 

and work, 185 
Body heat, 184 

and alcohol, 191 
and sickness, 188 
in summer, 189 
in winter, 189 
parts of, 19, 20 
regulation of, 188 
subdivisions of, 18 
Bone, fracture of, 29 



276 



INDEX. 



Bones, composition of, 27 

form of, 26 

number of, 26 

structure of, 27 

uses of, 24 
Bowels, 151 
Brain, 216, 217 

effect of alcohol on, 226 

coverings, 216 

divisions of, 218 

functions of, 221 

gray matter, 219 

size, 216 

training of, 221 

weight of, 216 

white matter of, 219 
Brandy, 102 

Bread, fermentation of, 97 
Breast-bone, 36 
Breathing, 165, 173, 251 

and changes in air, 174 

and tight clothing, 178 

by mouth, 173 

frequency of, 173 

movements, 173 

uses of, 174 
Bronchus, 172 

Capillaries, 121, 124 
Capsular ligament, 47 
Carpus, 39 
Cell, 16, 19 
Cerebellum, 220 
Cerebrum, 219 
Champagne, 99 
Chest, 37 

movements in breathing, 173 
Chewing-gum, 143 
Chloral, 204 

habit, 204 

effects of, 205 
Chloroform, 206 
Cider, 97 

Cigarette smoking, 199 
Circulation, 116 

effect of alcohol on, 127 

effects of tobacco on, 131 

in lungs, 120 

means of helping, 127 

rapidity of, 125 
Clavicle, 36 



Clothing, 188, 245 

and breathing, 178 
Clotting of blood, 115 

value of, 115 
Coca, 91 
Cocaine, 91 

habit, 91 
Cocoa, 89 "^ 

Coffee, 89 

effect of, on nervous system,232 
Cold-blooded animals, 187 
Cold, effects of, 190 

in head, 252 
Collar-bone, 36 
Combustion, 184 

of food, 135 
Cooking, 88 
Cordials, 104 
Cosmetics, 245 
Cranial nerves, 220 
Cranium, 31 
Crime and alcohol, 107 

Deaf mutes, 271 

Diet, mixed, advantages of, 87 

Digestion, 138 

effects of tobacco on, 150 

organs of, 139 
Diseases due to alcoholic habit, 

105 
Distilled spirits, 102 
Dyspepsia, 142 

Ear, 268 

and throat, 269 

bones of, 269 

effect of alcohol on, 272 

inner, 268, 269, 270 

middle, 268 

outer, 268 

parts of, 268 
Ears, care of, 272 
Eating habits. 158 
Elixirs, 104 

Endurance and tobacco, 199 
Epiglottis, 167 
Exercise, 66, 245 

effects of, on appetite, 7 
on heart, 70 
on lungs, 69 
on muscles, 67 



INDEX. 



277 



Exercise, effects of, on skin, 69 

gymnasium, 73 

home, 74 

kinds of, 72 

time to, 71 

value of, 66 
Expectancy of life, 106 
Eye and camera, 254 
Eye, 257 

muscles of, 260 

nerve of, 261 

parts of, 258 

protection to, 259 
Eyebrows, 258 
EVelashes, 258 
Eyelids, 258 
Eyes, care of, 268 

Face, 32 
Fat, 52 

uses of, 53 
Fatty degeneration of heart, 129 
Fats and oils, 82 
Femur, 39 
Fermentation, 95 

in bread making, 97 

prevention of, 96 
Ferments, 95 
Fibula, 39, 40 
Food, 76 

combustion, 135 

effect of alcohol on, 104 

kinds of, 90 

mineral, 84 
Foot, 39, 40 
Forearm, bones of, 38 
Function, 15 

Gall-bladder, 154, 155 
Gastric juice, 146 

tubules, 146 

uses of, 147 
Gin, 102 
Gullet, 144 

Hair, 242 

care of, 246 
Hashish, 205 
Head and neck, 19 

bones of, 31 



Hearing, 268 

nerve, 270 
Heart, 117 

beats, frequency of, 119 

cavities of, 118 

effects of alcohol on, 129 
of tobacco on, 130 
of exercise on, 70 

fatty degeneration of, 129 

form of, 118 

function of, 119 

situation of, 117 

valves, 122, 123 
Heat of human body, 184, 187 
Hereditary influence of alcohol, 

229 
Hip-bones, 36 
Humerus, 38 
Hygiene, 15 

IcE-VTATER in summer, 190 
Images, 261 

Indigestion, causes of, 158 
Inspiration, path of, 165 
Intelligence, 221 
Intestines, 151 

motion of, 152 

openings into, 153 

parts of, 151 

structure of, 152, 158 

work of, 152 
Introduction, 13 

questions, 21 

synopsis, 21 
Iris, 259 

Joints, 45 
accidents to, 48 
ball and socket, 48 
dislocated, 48 
gliding, 47 
hinge, 47 
immovable, 45 
movable, 46 
pivot, 48 

slightly movable, 46 
varieties of, 46 

Knee-pan, 39, 40 
Kola, 91 



278 



INDEX. 



Lacteals, 132, 157 
Larynx, 165, 166 

form of, 165 

parts of, 165, 166 

situation of, 165 
Laudanum, 201 
Leg, bones of, 40 
Ligaments, 47 
Limbs, 21 
Liquors, 102 
Liver, 154 

effects of alcoholic drinks on, 
156 

uses of, 155 
Lower limb, bones of, 39 
Lungs, 170 

circulation of, 120 

effects of alcohol on, 178 
of exercise, 59 

shape of, 170, 171 

structure of, 171, 172 
Lymphatics, 130 

Malt, 100 

liquors, 100 
Meat, 81 
Medulla, 220 
Metacarpus, 39 
Metatarsus, 40 
Microscope, 112 
Milk, 81 

Mirzah, vision of, 13 
Money spent in alcoholic drinks, 

107 
Morphine, 200, 201 
effects of, 202 
habit, 202, 203 
results of, 203 
poisoning, 202 
Mouth, 138 
Muscles, 51 
action of, 55 
alcohol on, 60 
effect of exercise on, 67 
of over-exercise, 68 
of tobacco on, 63 
groups, 57 
important, 59, 60 
biceps, 59 
diaphragm, 60 
pectoralis, 59 



Muscles, important, triceps, 59 

kinds of, 53 

mixed, 54 

number of, 58 

of front of chest, arm, and fore- 
arm, 58 ,^ 

picture of, 52 

shape of, 58 

size of, 59 

work of, 51 
Muscle-tissue, description of, 51 
Muscular strength and tobacco, 
199 

Nails, 243 

care of, 246 
Narcotics, 195 
Neck, 19 

Nerve action time, 216 
Nerves, kinds of, 224 

spinal, 223 
Nervous action, 215 
system, 212 
and alcohol, 226 
and coffee, 232 
and tea, 232 
and tobacco, 232 
divisions of, 214 
function of, 214 
in man, 214 
tissue in plants, 213 
Nervousness, 226 
Nose, 250 
parts, 251 

CESOPHAGUS, 144 

Oil-tubes, 238 
Oils and fats, 82 
Opiates, 201 
Opium, 200, 201 

character of, 201 

effects of, 202 

habit, 202, 203 
results of, 203 

poisoning, 202 
Organ, 15 

Over-exercise, effect of, on mus- 
cles, 68 
Oxygen as food, 186 

Pancreas, 156 

Pancreatic juice, uses of, 157 



INDEX. 



279 



Patella, 39, 40 
Pepsin, 147 
Pericardium, 118 
Peritoneum, 152 
Perspiration, 190, 241 

tubes, 241 

uses of, 242 
Phalanges, 39 
Physiology, 15 

Plants and animals, similarity of, 
212 

how they live and grow, 175 
Plasma, 113 

use of, 114 
Pleura, 173 
Porter, 100 
Proteids, 81 
Pulse, 124 
Pupil, 259 

Radius, 38 

Red blood globules, 112 
Reflex action, 224 
Respiration, 165 
Retina, 255 
Ribs, 37 
Root beer, 101 
Rum, 102 

Saliva, 142 
Salivary glands, 142 

kinds of, 143 
Scapula, 36 
Scents, 253 
Senses, 238 

special, 238 
Shoulder-blade, 36 
Sight, 260 

effects of alcohol on, 265 

old, 265 

principles of, 260 

weak, 264 
Skeleton, 22, 23, 25, 31 

care of, 28 
Skin, 238, 240 

and bodily heat, 239 

and elimination, 239 

and feeling, 239 

attachments of, 240 

care of, 239 

color of, 239 



Skin, effect of alcohol on, 246 

effect of exercise on, 69 

structure of, 239 

uses of, 238 
Skull, 32, 33 

bones separated, 33 
Sleep, 225 

amount of, 225 

time of, 225 

uses of, 225 
Smell, 250, 251 

effect of alcohol on, 253 

in lower animals, 251 

nerves of, 251 

use of, 252 
Smoker's sore throat, 197 
Smoking cigarettes, 199 
Sound, 270 

Sounds, how produced, 168 
Speaking, 169 
Spinal column, 39 

cord, .222, 223 
function of, 224 

nerves, 223 
Spleen, 159 
Starches, 82 
Stomach, 144 

discovery of action, 148 

effects of alcoholic drinks on, 
148 

mucous membrane of, 145 

uses of, 147 
Stout, 100 

Sub-lingual gland, 143 
Sub-maxillary, 143 
Sugars, 82 
Sunstroke, 190 

Sympathetic nervous system, 232 
Synovial membrane, 47 

Tarsus, 40 
Taste, 255 

abuse of sense, 256 

effect of alcohol on, 256 
Tea, 89 

effect of, on nervous system, 
228 
Tears, 262 
Teeth, 138 

care of, 142 

kinds of, 141 



280 



INDEX. 



Teeth, milk, 138 

permanent, 139 

wisdom, 140 
Tendon Achilles, 60 
Tendons, 52 
Thorax, 37 
Throat, 143 

effect of tobacco on, 179 
Tibia, 39, 40 
Tobacco, 195 

and vocal cords, effect of on, 
179 

and the throat, 179 

as a medicine, 197 

blindness, 198 

composition of, 196 

cultivation of, 195 

effects of, 196 
on athletes, 74 
on bones, 30 
on digestion, 150 
on muscle, 63 

habit, 197 
objections to, 200 

heart, 198 

history of, 195 

on the circulation, 130 

on the heart, 130 

on muscular strength, 199 

on the nervous system, 232 

on the young, 198 

nervousness, 198 

injurious effects of, on adults, 
197 
Tongue, 144, 254 

structure of, 254 

uses of, 256 
Tonics, 104 
Tooth, parts of, 140 



Touch, 238 
Trachea, 169 

form of, 169 

situation e#; 169 
Trunk, 21 

bones of, 39 
Turkish baths, 245 
Typhoid fever, 86 

Ulna, 38 
Uncleanliness, 243 
Upper limb, bones of, 38 

Valves of veins, 125 
Veins, 123, 124 
valves of, 125 
Ventilation, 177 
Ventricles, 120 
Vertebrae, 35 
Vessels, blood, 123 
Vocal cords, 167 

in breathing, 167 

effects of tobacco on, 179 
Voice, 165 

Wakefulness, 226 
Warm-blooded animals, 187 
Water, 84 

contamination of, 85 
Whiskey, 102 
White blood-globules, 102 
Windpipe, 167, 169 

branching of, 170 

rings of, 170 
Wine, 98 

home made, 99 
Wrist, bones of, 39 

Yeast, 97 



^jt 



.9^ 



A TEXT-BOOK 



ON 



PHYSICS 



BEING A SHORT AND COMPLETE COURSE 



BASED UPON THE LARGER WORK OF GANOT. 



For the Use of Academies High Schools, etc. 



HENRY KIDDLE, A.M., 

LATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NEW YORK CITY. 



Illiastrated. by Ttiree Colored. Folates and a t^arge Number 

of Woodciats. 



A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION 

WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, Publishers 
NEW YORK. 



